
Glass 1_ 

Book ■ tW 



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/ 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

ADAPTED TO THE 

DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LEARNERS, 

WITH 

AN APPENDIX, 

CONTAINING 

RULES AND OBSERVATIONS 



FOR ASSISTING THE MORE ADVANCED STUDENTS TO WRIT* 
WITH PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY. 



They who are learning to compose and arrange their sentences with accura( 
and order, arc learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and order. 

BLAT1 



BY LINDLEY MURRAY. 



Baltimore: 

PUBLISHED BY JOHN MURPHY & CO. 

No. 178 Market Street. 

Sold by all the principal Booksellers in the United States. 

18 59. 



INTRODUCTION. 



When the number and variety of English Grammars already 
published, and the ability with which some of them are written, 
are considered, little can be expected from a new compilation, be- 
sides a careful selection of the most useful matter, and some degree 
of improvement in the mode of adapting it to the understanding, 
and Uie gradual progress of learners. In these respects something, 
perhaps, may yet he done, for the ease and advantage of young 
persons. 

In books designed for the instruction of youth, there is a me- 
dium to be observed, between treating the subject in so extensive 
and minute a manner, as to embarrass and confuse their minds, by 
offering too much at once for their comprehension ; and, on the 
other hand, conducting it by such short and general precepts and 
observations, as convey to them no clear and precise information. 
A distribution of the parts, which is either defective or irregular, 
has also a tendency to perplex the young understanding, and to re- 
tard its knowledge of the principles of literature. A distinct gene- 
ral view, or outline, of all the essential parts of the study in which 
they are engaged ; a gradual and judicious supply of this outline ; 
and a due arrangement of the divisions, according to their natural 
order and connexion, appear to be among the best means of en- 
lightening the minds of youth, and of facilitating their acquisition 
of knowledge. The author of this work, at the same time that he 
has endeavoured to avoid a plan, which may be too concise or too 
extensive, defective in its parts or irregular in their disposition, has 
studied to render his subject sufficiently easy, intelligible, and com- 
prehensive. He does not presume to have completely attained 
these objects. How far he has succeeded in the attempt, and 
wherein he has failed, must be referred to the determination of the 
judicious and candid reader. 

The method which he has adopted, of exhibiting the perform- 
ance in characters of different sizes, will, he trusts, be conducive 
to that gradual and regular procedure, which is so favourable to the 
business of instruction. The more important rules, definitions, and 
observations, and which are therefore the most proper to be com- 
mitted to memory, are printed with a larger type ; whilst rules and 
remarks that are of less consequence, that extend or diversify the 
general idea, or that serve as explanations, are contained in the 
smaller letter : these, or the chief of them, will be perused by the 
student to the greatest advantage, if postponed till the general sys- 
tem be completed. The use of notes and observations, in the com- 
mon and detached manner, at the bottom of the page, would not, it 
is imagined, be so likely to attract the perusal of youth, or admit 
of so ample and regular an illustration, as a continued and uniform 
order of the several subjects. In adopting this mode, care has been 
taken to adjust it so that the whole may be perused in a connected 



INTRODUCTION. 



progress, or the part contained in the larger character read in order 
by itself. Many of the notes and observations are intended, not 
only to explain the subjects, and to illustrate them, by comparative 
views of the grammar of other languages, and of the various senti- 
ments of English grammarians ; but also to invite the ingenious 
student to inquiry and reflection, and to prompt to a more enlarged, 
critical, and philosophical research. 

With respect to the definitions and rules, it may not be impro- 
per more particularly to observe, that in selecting and forming 
them, it has been the author's aim to render them as exact and 
comprehensive, and, at the same time, as intelligible to young 
minds, as the nature of the subject, and the difficulties attending it, 
would admit. He presumes that they are also calculated to be 
readily committed to memory, and easily retained. For this pur- 
pose, he has "been solicitous to select terms that are smooth and 
voluble ; to proportion the members of the sentences to one ano- 
ther ; to avoid protracted periods ; and to give the whole definition 
or rule, as much harmony of expression as he could devise. 

From the sentiment generally admitted, that a proper selection 
of faulty composition is more instructive to the young grammarian, 
than any rules and examples of propriety that can be ^iven, the 
Compiler has been induced to pay peculiar attention to this part of 
the subject ; and though the instances of false grammar, under the 
rules of Syntax, are numerous, it is hoped they will not be found 
too many, when their variety and usefulness are considered. 

In a work which professes itself to be a compilation, and which, 
from the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly of materials 
selected from the writings of others, it is scarcely necessary to apolo- 
gize for the use which the Compiler has made of his predecessors' 
labours ; or for omitting to insert their names. From the altera- 
tions which have been frequently made in the sentiments and the 
language, to suit the connexion, and to adapt them to the particular 
purposes for which they are introduced ; and, in many instances, 
from the uncertainty to whom the passages originally belonged, the 
insertion of. names could seldom be made with propriety. But if 
this could have geen generally done, a work of this nature would 
derive no advantage from it, equal to the inconvenience of crowd- 
ing the pages with a repetition of names and references. It is, 
however, proper to acknowledge, in general terms, that the authors 
to whom the grammatical part of this compilation is principally 
indebted for its materials, are Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, 
Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, and Coote. 

The Rules and Observations respecting Perspicuity, &c. con- 
tained in the Appendix, and which are, chiefly, extracted from the 
writings of Blair and Campbell, will, it is presumed, form a proper 
addition to the Grammar, The subjects are very nearly related ; 
and the study of perspicuity and accuracy in writing, appears na- 
turally to follow that of Grammar. A competent acquaintance with 
with the principles of both, will prepare and quality the students, 
for prosecuting those additional improvements in language, to 
which they may be properly directed. 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

On the utility and importance of the study of Grammar, and the 
principles of Composition, much might be advanced, for the en.. 
couragement of persons in early life to apply themselves to this 
branch of learning ; but as the limits of this Introduction will not 
allow of many observations on the subject, a few leading sentiments 
are all that can be admitted here with propriety. As words are the 
signs of our ideas, and the medium by which we perceive the senti- 
ments of others, and communicate our own ; and as signs exhibit 
the things which they are intended to represent, more or less accu- 
rately, according as their real or established conformity to those 
things is more or less exact ; it is evident, that in proportion to our 
knowledge of the nature and properties of words, of their relation 
to each other, and of their established connexion with the ideas to 
which they are applied, will be the certainty and ease, with which 
we transfuse our sentiments into the mincfs of one another; and 
that, without a competent knowledge of this kind, we shall fre- 
quently be in hazard of misunderstanding others, and of b^ing mis- 
understood ourselves. It may indeed be justly asserted, that many 
of the differences in opinion amongst men, with the disputes, con- 
tentions, and alienations of heart, which have too often proceeded 
from such differences, have been occasioned by a want of proper 
skill in the connexion and meaning of words, and by a tenacious 
misapplication of language. 

One of the best supports, which the recommendation of this 
study can receive, in small compass, may be derived from the fol- 
lowing sentiments of an eminent and candid writer* on language 
and composition. "All that regards the study of composition, 
" merits the higher attention upon this account, that it is intimately 
" connected with the improvement of our intellectual powers. For 
" I must be allowed to say, that when we are employed, after a 
M proper manner, in the study of composition, we are cultivating 
" the understanding itself. The study of arranging and expressing 
" our thoughts with propriety, teaches to think, as well as to speak, 
•« accurately." 

Before the close of this Introduction, it may not be superfluous 
to observe, that the author of the following work has no interest Jb 
it, but that which arises from the hope, that it will prove of some 
advantage to young persons, and relieve the labours of those who 
are employed in their education. He wishes to promote, in some 
degree, the cause of virtue, as well as of learning ; and, with this 
view, he has been studious, through the whole of the work, not 
only to avoid every example and illustration, which might have an 
improper effect on the minds of youth ; but also to introduce, on 
many occasions, such as have a moral and religious tendency. His 
attention to objects of so much importance will, he trusts, meet the 
approbation of every well-disposed reader. If they were faithfully 
regarded in all books of education, they would doubtless contribute 
very materially to the order and happiness of society, by guarding 
the innocence and cherishing the virtue of the rising generation. 

Holgate, near York, 1795. 

* Blair. 



ADVERTISEMENT 

TO THE NINTH EDITION. 

The eighth edition of this grammar received considerable alter- 
ations and additions : but works of this nature admit of repeated 
improvements ; and are, perhaps, never complete. The author, 
solicitous to render his book more worthy of the encouraging ap- 
probation bestowed on it by the public, has again revised the work 
with care and attention. The new edition, he" hopes, will be found 
much improved. The additions, which are very considerable, are, 
chiefly, such as are calculated to expand the learner's views of the 
subject ; to obviate objections ; and to render grammar both easy 
and interesting. This edition contains also a new and enlarged 
system of parsing; copious lists of nouns arranged according to 
their gender and number ; and many notes and observations, which 
serve to extend, or to explain, particular rules and positions.* 

The writer is sensible that, after all his endeavours to elucidate 
the principles of the work, there are few of the divisions, arrange- 
ments, definitions, or rules, against which critical ingenuity cannot 
devise plausible objections. The subject is attended with so much 
intricacy, and admits of views so various, that it was not possible 
to render every part of it unexceptionable ; or to accommadate the 
work, in all respects, to the opinions and prepossessions of every 
grammarian and teacher. If the author has adopted that system 
which, on the whole, is best suited to the nature of the subject, and 
conformable to the sentiments of the most judicious grammarians ; 
if his reasonings and illustrations, respecting particular points, are 
founded on just principles, and the peculiarities of the English lan- 
guage ; he has, perhaps, done all that could rersonably be expected 
in a work of this nature ; and he may v/arrantably indulge a hope, 
that the book will be still more extensively approved and circulated. 

* The author conceives that the occasional strictures, dispersed through the 
book intended to illustrate and support a number of important grammatical 
points, will not, to young persons of ingenuity, appear to be dry and useless 
discussions. He is persuaded that, by such persons, they will be read with at- 
tention. And he presumes that these strictures will gratify their curiosity, 
stimulate application, and give solidity and permanence to their grammatical 
knowledge. In the Octavo edition of the grammar, the reader will find many 
additional discussions of this nature. 

Holgate, near York, 1804. 



CONTENTS. 



A/X/-V/X/V/VV/X. 

PART L— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

CHAP. 1. Of letters. Pag« 

Sect. 1. Of the nature of the letters, and of a perfect 

alphabet 11 

2. General observations on the sounds of the 

letters 17 

3. The nature of articulation explained 24 

CHAP. 2. Of syllables, and the rules for arranging them 26 

CHAP. 3. Of words in general, and the rules for spelling 

them 27 

PART II.— ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAP. 1. A general view of the parts of speech 30 

CHAP. 2. Of the articles 32 

CHAP. 3. Of substantives 

Sect. 1. Of substantives in general 34 

2. Of gender ib. 

3. Of number 36 

4. Of case 38 

CHAP. 4. Of adjectives. 

Sect. 1. Of the nature of adjectives, and the degrees 

of comparison. 41 

2. Remarks on the subject of comparison 43 

CHAP. 5. Of pronouns. 

Sect. 1. Of the personal pronouns 44 

2. Of the relative pronouns 45 

3. Of the adjective pronouns .47 

CHAP. 6. Of verbs. 

Sect. 1. Of the nature of verbs in general 50 

2. Of number and person 53 

3. Of moods and participles ib. 

4. Remarks on the potential mood 56 

5. Of the tenses., 57 

6. The conjugation of the auxiliary verbs to 

have and to be 62 

7. The auxiliary verbs conjugated in their 

simple form ; with observations on their 
peculiar nature and force 68 



8 CONTENTS. 

Page 

Sect. 8. The conjugation of regular verbs 71 

9. ObseTvations on passive verbs 77 

10. Of irregular verbs 79 

11. Of defective verbs; and of the different 

ways in which verbs are conjugated 84 

CHAP. 7. Of adverbs 85 

CHAP. 8. Of prepositions ' 87 

CHAP. 9. Of conjunctions 90 

CHAP. 10. Of interjections . 92 

CHAP. 11. Of derivation ib. 

Sect. 1. Of the various ways in which v/ords are 

derived from one another ib. 

2. A sketch of the steps, by which the English 
language has risen to its present state 
of refinement 95 

PART III.— SYNTAX. 

Of the syntax of the article .116 

Of the syntax of the noun. 

Of several nouns joined by copulatives 101 

Of nouns connected by disjunctives 103 

Of nouns of multitude ib 

Of one noun governing another in the possessive case. . . 118 

Of the syntax of the pronoun. 

Of pronouns agreeing with their antecedents 104 

Of the relative being nominative to the verb 107 

Of the relative preceded by nominatives of different 
persons 109 

Of the syntax of the adjective ib. 

Of the syntax of the verb. 

Of the verb's agreement with the nominative case 98 

Of verbs active requiring the objective case 122 

Of one verb governing another in the infinitive mood. . . 124 
Of verbs related in point of time 125 

Of the syntax of the participle 128 

Of the rules respecting adverbs. 

Of the position of adverbs .129 

Of two negatives .131 

Of the syntax of prepositions ib. 

Of the syntax of conjunctions. 

Of conjunctions connecting the same moods, tenses, 

and cases 134 

Of conjunctions requiring the subjunctive mood, &c. 135 
Of the syntax of interjections 107 



CONTENTS. 9 

Page 

Of comparisons by the conjunction than or as 141 

Directions respecting the ellipses 142 

General rule of syntax 144 

Directions for parsing , 146 

PART IV.— PROSODY. 
CHAP. 1. Of pronunciation 152 

Sect. 1. Of accent ib. 

2. Of quantity 155 

3. Of emphasis 156 

4. Of pauses 159 

5. Of tones 161 

CHAP. 2. Of versification 162 

OF PUNCTUATION. 

CHAP. 1. Of the comma 172 

CHAP. 2. Of the semicolon 175 

CHAP. 3. Of the colon. . 176 

CHAP. 4. Of the period ib. 

CHAP. 5. Of the dash, notes of interrogation, exclamation, 

capitals, &c 177 

APPENDIX. 

RULES AND OBSERVATIONS FOR PROMOTING PERSPICUITY AND 
ACCURACY IN WRITING. 

PART I. 

Of perspicuity and accuracy of expression, with respect to single words 
and phrases. 

CHAP. 1. Of purity 182 

CHAP. 2. Of propriety 183 

CHAP. 3. Of precision 187 

PART II. 

Of perspicuity and accuracy of expression, with respect to the con- 
struction of sentences. 

CHAP. 1. Of the clearness of a sentence 19(? 

CHAP. 2. Of the unity of a sentence 193 

CHAP. 3. Of the strength of a sentence 195 

CHAP. 4. Of figures of speech 205 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



<wvwwwv\wwv 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts, viz. ORTHOGRA- 
PHY, ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, and PROSODY. 

This division may be rendered more intelligible to the student, 
by observing, in other words, that Grammar treats, first, of the 
form and sound of the letters, the combination of letters into sylla- 
bles, and syllables into words ; secondly, of the different sorts of 
words, their various modifications, and their derivation ; thirdly, of 
the union and right order of words in the formation of the sentence ; 
and lastly, of the just pronunciation, and poetical construction of 
sentences. 



'WVWWVW 



PART L 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 



CHAPTER I. 

OP THE LETTERS. 



8E CTI ON I . Of the nature of the letters, and of a perfect alphabet. 

ORTHOGRAPHY teaches the nature and powers 
of letters, and the just method of spelling words. 

A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word. 

The letters of the English language, called the 
English Alphabet, are twenty-six in number. 

These letters are the representatives of certain arti- 
culate sounds, the elements of the language. An ar- 
ticulate sound, is the sound of the human voice, formed 
by the organs of speech. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The following is a list of the Saxon, Roman, Italic, and 
Old English Characters. 



Saxon. 


Roman. 


Italic. 


Old English. 


Name. 


Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. ! 


Small. 


Cap. Small. 




X 


a 


A 


a 


A 


a 


% 


a 


ai. 


B 


b 


B 


b 


B 


b 


jB 


b 


bee. 


E 


c 


C 


c 


C 


c 


€ 


JC 


see. 


D 


b 


D 


d 


D 


d 


m 


& 


dee. 


e 


e 


E 


e 


E 


e 


€ 


£ 


ee. 


F 


F 


F 


f 


F 


f 


£ 


f 


ef- 


D 


S 


G 


g 


G 


s 


(3 





jee. 


13 


h 


H 


h 


H 


h 


n 


1) 


aitch. 


I 


1 


I 


i 


I 


i 


% 


i 


i or eye. 






J 


J 


J 


J 


3 


i 


J a V- 


K 


k 


K 


k 


K 


k 


E 


k 


hay. 


L 


1 


L 


1 


L 


I 


% 


1 


el. 


CD 


m 


M 


m 


M 


m 


m 


m 


em. 


N 


n 


N 


n 


N 


n 


3f 


n 


en. 


O 

















© 





0. 


P 


P 


P 


P 


P 


P 


» 


V 


pee. 


a 


cp 


a 


q 


Q 


? 


<& 


* 


cue. 


R 


P- 


R 


r 


R 


r 


m 


r 


at. 


s 


r 


s 


s 


S 


s 


s 





ess. 


T 


c 


T 


t 


T 


t 


$ 


t 


tee. 


U 


u 


U 


u 


U 


u 


u 


n 


u or you 


V 


V 


V 


V 


V 


V 


b 


t) 


vee. 


U) 


p 


W 


w 


w 


w 


to 


to 


double u 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


% 


eks. 


Y 


y 


Y 


y 


Y 


y 


i 


a 


wy. 


Z 


z 


Z 


z 


Z 


z 


z 


? 


zed. 






ORTHOGRAPHY. IS 

A perfect alphabet of the English language, and, indeed, of every 
other language, would contain a number of letters, precisely equal 
to the number of simple articulate sounds belonging to the language. 
Every simple sound would have its distinct character; and that 
character be the representative of no other sound. But this is far from 
being the state of the English alphabet. It has more original sounds 
than distinct significant letters ; and, consequently j some of these 
letters are made to represent, not one sound alone, but several sounds. 
This will appear by reflecting, that the sounds signified by the 
united letters th, sh, ng, are elementary, and have no single appro- 
priate characters, in our alphabet : and that the letters a and u re- 
present the different sounds heard in hat, hate, hall, and in but, bull, 
mule. 

To explain this subject more fully to the learners, we shall set 
down the characters made use of to represent all the elementary 
articulate sounds of our language, as nearly in the manner and order 
of the present English alphabet, as the design of the subject will 
admit ; and shall annex to each character the syllable or word, which 
contains its proper and distinct sound. And here it will be proper 
to begin with the vowels. 



Letters denoting the 






Word* 


s containing the 


simple sounds. 






simple sounds. 


a 


as heard in 




fate 


a 


as 


in 




fall 


a 


as 


in 




fat 


a 


as 


in 




far 


e 


as 


in 




me 


e 


as 


in 




met 


i 


as 


in 




pine 


i 


as 


in 




pin 


o 


as 


in 




no 





as 


in 




not 


o 


as 


in 




move 


u 


as 


in 




mule 


u 


as 


in 




tub 


u 


as 


in 




bull 



By this list it appears, that there are in the English language 
fourteen simple vowel sounds : but as i and u, when pronounced 
long, may be considered as diphthongs, or diphthongal vowels, our 
language, strictly speaking, contains but twelve simple vowel 
sounds ; to represent which, we have only five distinct characters 
or letters. If a in far, is the same specific sound as a in fat; and 
u in bull, the same as o in move, which is the opinion of some gram- 
marians ; then there are but ten original vowel sounds in the English 
language. 

The following list denotes the sounds of the consonants, being in 
number twenty- two. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



etters denoung the 






Words containing the 


simple sounds. 






simple sounds. 


b 


as 


heard in 


bay, tub 


d 


as 


in 


day, sad 


f 


as 


in 


off', for 


V 


as 


in 


van, love 


I* 


as 


in 


e gg> g° 


as 


in 


hop, ho 


k 


as 


in 


kill, oak 


1 


». as 


in 


lap, all 


m 


as 


in 


my, mum 


n 


as 


in 


no, on 


P 


as 


in 


pin, map 


r 


as 


in 


rap, cry 


s 


as 


in 


so, lass 


z 


as 


in 


zed, buzz 


t 


as 


in 


top, mat 


w 


as 


in 


wo, will 


y 


as 


in 


ye, yes 


ng 


as 


in 


ing, sing 


sh 


as 


in 


shy, ash 


th 


as 


in 


thin, thick 


th 


as 


in 


then, them 


zh 


as 


in 


pleasure 



Several letters marked in the English alphabet, as consonants, are 
either superfluous, or represent not simple, but complex sounds. C, 
for instance, is superfluous in both its sounds ; the one being expres- 
sed by k, and the other by s. G, in the soft pronunciation, is not a 
simple, but a complex sound ; as age is pronounced aidge. J, is 
unnecessary, because its sound, and that of the soft g, are in our 
language the same. Q, with its attendant u, is either complex, and 
resolvable into kw, as in quality ; or unnecessary, because its sound 
is the same with k, as in opaque. X, is compounded of gs, as in 
example; or of ks, as in expect. 

From the preceding representation, it appears to be a point of 
considerable importance, that every learner of the English language 
should be taught to pronounce perfectly, and with facility, every 
original simple sound that belongs to it. By a timely and judicious 
care in this respect, the voice will be prepared to utter, with ease 
and accuracy, every combination of sounds ; and taught to avoid 
that confused and imperfect manner of pronouncing words, which 
accompanies, through life, many persons who have not, in this res- 
pect, been properly instructed at an early period. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 
A Vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly 

* Some grammarians suppose h to mark only an aspiration, or breathing; but 
It appears to be a distinct sound, and formed in a particular manner, by th« 
organs of speech. Encyclopedia Britanmca, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

uttered by itself: as, a, e, o; which are formed 
without the help of any other sound. 

A Consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be 
perfectly uttered without the help of a vowel: 6, d,/, 
I ; which require vowels to express them fully. 

The vowels are, «, e, t, 0, u, and sometimes w and y. 

J^and y are consonants when they begin a word or 
syllable; but in every other situation they are vowels. 

It is generally acknowledged by the best grammarians, that w and 
y are consonants when they begin a syllable or word, and vowels 
when they end one. That they are consonants, when used as ini- 
tials, seems to be evident from their not admitting the article an be- 
fore them, as it would be improper to say, an walnut, an yard, &c. ; 
and from their following a vowel without any hiatus or difficulty of 
utterance; as, frosty winter, rosy youth. That they are vowels in 
other situations, appears from their regularly taking the sound of 
other vowels ; as, w has the exact sound of u in saw% few, now 7 , &c. ; 
and y that of i, in hymn, fly, crystal, &c. See the letters IF and F, 
page 23.* 

We present to following as more exact and philosophical defini- 
tions of a vowel and consonant. 

A vow r el is a simple, articulate sound, perfect in itself, and formed 
by a continued effusion of the breath, and a certain conformation of 
the mouth, without any alteration in the position, or any motion of 
the organs of speech, from the moment the vocal sound commences, 
till it ends. 

A consonant is a simple, articulate sound, imperfect by itself, but 
which joined with a vowel, forms a complete sound, by a particular 
motion or contact of the organs of speech. 

Some grammarians subdivide vowels into the simple and the com- 
pound. "But there does not appear to be any foundation for the dis- 
tinction. Simplicity is essential to the nature of a vowel, which 
excludes every degree of mixed or compound sounds. It requires, 
according to the definition, but one conformation of the organs of 
speech, to form it, and no motion in the organs, whilst it is forming. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid 
of a vowel. They are 6, p, t, eZ, &, and c and g hard. 

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of them- 
selves. They are /, /, ra, n, r, v, s\ z 9 x 9 and c and 
g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, Z, m, n t r, are also 

* The letters w and 1/, are of an ambiguous nature ; being consonants at the 
besinning of words, and vowels at the end. Encyclopedia Britannica. 

WALKER'S Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, page 24, third edition, 
PERRY's English Dictionary, Preface, page, 7. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

distinguished by the name of liquids, from their readily 
uniting with other consonants, and flowing, as it were 
into their sounds. 

We have shown above, that it. is essential to the nature of a con- 
sonant, that it cannot be fully uttered without the aid of a vowel. 
We may further observe, that even the names of the consonants, as 
they are pronounced in reciting the alphabet, require the help of 
vowels to express them. In pronouncing the names of the mutes, 
the assistant vowels follow the consonants: as, be, pe, te, de, ka. In 
pronouncing the names of the semi-vowels, the vowels generally 
precede the consonants : as, ef, el, em, en, ar, es, ex. The exceptions 
are, ce, ge, ve, zed. 

This distinction between the nature and the name of a consonant, 
is of great importance, and should be well explained to the pupil. 
They are frequently confounded by writers on grammar. Observa- 
tions and reasonings on the name, are often applied to explain the 
nature, of a consonant : and, by this means, the student is led into 
error and perplexity, respecting these elements of language. It 
should be impressed on his mind, that the name of every consonant 
is a complex sound ; but that the consonant itself, is always a simple 
sound. 

Some writers have described the mutes and semi-vowels, with their 
subdivisions, nearly in the following manner. 

The mutes are those consonants whose sounds cannot be protrac- 
ted. The semi-vowles, such whose sounds can be continued at plea- 
sure, partaking of the nature of vowels, from which they derive 
their name. 

The mutes may be subdivided into pure and impure. The pure 
are those whose sounds connot be at all prolonged : they are k, p, t. 
The impure, are those whose sounds may be continued, though for 
a very short space : they are b, d, g. 

The semi-vowles may be subdivided into vocal and aspirated. 
The vocal are those which are formed by the voice ; the aspirated, 
those formed by the breath. There are eleven vocal, and five as- 
pirated. The vocal are I, m, n, r, v, w, y, z, th flat, zh, ng: the as- 
pirated,/, h, s, th sharp, sh. 

The vocal semi- vowels may be subdivided into pure and impure. 
The pure are those which are formed entirely by the voice : the im- 
pure, such as have a mixture of breath with the voice. There are 
seven pure-Z, m, n, r, w, y, ng ; four impure — v, z, th flat, zh. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced 
by a simple impulse of the voice ; as ea in beat, ou in 
sound, 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pro- 
nounced in like manner; as, eau in beau, iew in view, 

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels 
are sounded ; as, oi in voice, on in ounce 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels 
sounded ; as, ea ia eagle, oa in boat. 

Each of the diphthongal letters was, doubtless, originally heard 
in pronouncing the words which contain them. Though this is not 
the case at present, with respect to many of them, these combina- 
tions still retain the name of diphthongs; but, to distinguish them, 
they are marked by the term improper. As the diphthong derives 
its name and nature from its sound, and not from its letters, and 
properly denotes a double vowel sound, no union of two vowels, 
where one is silent, can, in strictness, be entitled to that appellation; 
and the single letters i and u, whem pronounced long, must, in this 
view, be considered as diphthongs. The triphthongs, having at 
most but two sounds, are merely ocular, and are, therefore, by some 
grammarians, classed with the diphthongs. 

SECTION II. 

General observations on the sounds of the letters. 
A 

A has four sounds ; the long or slender, the broad, the short or 
open, and the middle. 

The long: as in name, basin, creation. 

The broad, as in call, wall, all. 

The short ; as in barrel, fancy, glass. 

The mid~dle ; as in far, farm, father. 

The diphthong aa generally sounds like a short in proper names; 
as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac; but not in Baal, Gaal. 

Ae has the sound of long e. It is sometimes found in Latin words. 
Some authors retain this form ; as, aenigma, aequator, &cc. ; but others 
have laid it aside, and write enigma, Cesar, Eneas, &c. 

The diphthong ai has exactly the long slender sound of a, as in 
pail, tail, &c; pronounced pale, tale, &c: except plaid, again, rail- 
lery, fountain, Britain, and a few others. 

Au is generally sounded like the broad a : as in taught, caught, 
Sec. Sometimes like the short or open a ; as in aunt, flaunt, gaunt- 
let, &c. It has the sound of long o in hautboy; and that of o short 
in laurel, laudanum, 8cc. 

Aw has always the sound of broad a; as in bawl, scrawl, crawl. 

Ay, like its near relation ai, is pronounced like the long slender 
sound of a ; as in pay, day, delay. 

B 

B keeps one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle, and end 
of words; as in baker, number, rhubarb, &c. 

In some words it is silent; as in thumb, debtor, subtle, Stc. In 
others, besides being silent, it lengthens the syllable ; as in climb, 
comb, tomb 

C 
Chas two different sounds. 
A hard sound like fc, before a, o, u, r, I, t; as in cart, cottage, 

9* 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

curious, craft, tract, cloth, &c. ; and when it ends a syllable ; as ill 
victim, flaccid. 

A soft sound like s before e, i, and y, generally ; as in centre, face, 
civil, cymbal, mercy, &c. It has sometimes the sound of sh ; as in 
ocean, social. 

C is mute in czar, czarine, victuals, &c. 

C, says Dr. Johnson, according to English orthography, never 
ends a word ; and therefore we find in our best dictionaries, stick, 
block, publick, politick, &c. But many writers of latter years omit 
the k in words of two or more syllables ; and this practice is gaining 
ground, though it is productive of irregularities, such as writing 
mimic and mimickry; traffic and trafficking. 

Ch is commonly sounded like tch; as in church, chin, chaff, 
charter : but in words derived from the Greek, has the sound of k ; 
as in chymist, scheme, chorus, chyle, distich ; and in foreign names ; 
as Achish, Baruch, Enoch, &c. 

Ch. in some words derived from the French, takes the sound of 
sh; as in chaise, chagrin, chevalier, machine. 

Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k; as in archangel, ar- 
chives, Archipelago ; except in arched, archery, archer, and arch- 
enemy : but before a consonant it always sounds like tch ; as in arch- 
bishop, archduke, archpresbyter, &c. Ch is silent in schedule, 
schism, and yacht. 

D 

D keeps one uniform sound, at the beginning, middle, and end 
of words ; as in death, bandage, kindred ; unless it may be said to 
take the sound of t, in stuffed, tripped, &c. stuft, tript, &c. 

E 

E has three different sounds. 

A long sound ; as in scheme, glebe, severe, pulley. 

A short sound ; as in men, bed, clemency. 

An obscure and scarcely perceptible sound ; as, open, lucre, par- 
ticiple. 

It has sometimes the sound of middle a; as in cleark, Serjeant ; 
and sometimes that of short i ; as in England, yes, pretty. 

E is alwayes mute at the end of a word, except in monosyllables 
that have no other vowel ; as, me, he, she : or in substantives derived 
from the Greek; as, catastrophe, epitome, Penelope. It is used to 
soften and modify the foregoing consonants ; as, force, rage, since, 
oblige : or to lengthen the preceding vowel ; as, can, cane ; pin, pine ; 
rob, robe. 

The diphthong ea is generally sounded like e long ; as in appear 
beaver, creature, &c. It has also the sound of short e ; as in breath, 
meadow, treasure. And it is sometimes pronounced like the long 
and slender a; as in bear, break, great. 

Eau has the sound of long o ; as in beau, flambeau, portmanteau 
In beauty and its compounds, it has the sound of long u. 

Ei, in general, sounds the same as long and slender a; as in deign. 
vein, neighbor, &c. It has the sound of long e in seize, deceit, re- 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 

ceive, either, neither, &c. It is sometimes pronounced like short 
t; as in foreign, forfeit, sovereign, &c. 

Eo 13 pronounced like e long ; as in people ; and sometimes like e 
short ; as in leopard, jeopardy. It has also the sound of short u; as 
in dungeon, sturgeon, puncheon, &c. 

Eu is always sounded like long u or ew; as in feud, deuce. 

Ew is almost always pronounced like long u ; as in few, new, dew. 

Ey, when the accent is on- it, is always pronounced like a long; 
as in bey, grey, convey ; except in key, ley, where it is sounded like 
*ong e. 

When this dipthong is unaccented, it takes the sound of e long ; 
as, alley, valley, barley. 

F 

F keeps one pure unvaried sound at the beginning, middle, and 
end of words; as, fancy, muffin, mischief, &c: except in of, in 
which it has the flat sound of ov ; but not in composition ; as, where- 
of, thereof, &c. We should not pronounce, a wive's jointure, a 
ealve's head; but a wife's jointure, a calf's head. 

G 

G has two sounds : one hard ; as in gay, go, gun : the other soft ; 
as in gem, giant. 

At the end of a word it is always hard ; as in bag, snug, frog. It 
is hard before a, o, u, Z, andr ; as, game, gone, gull, glory, grandeur. 

G before e, i, and ?/, is soft ; as in genius, gesture, ginger, Egypt; 
except in get, gewgaw, finger, craggy, and some others. 

G is mute before n; as in gnash, sign, foreign, &c. 

Gw, at the end of a word, or syllable accented, gives the preced- 
ing vowel a long sound ; as in resign, impugn, oppugn, impregn, 
impugned ; pronounced impune, imprene, &c. 

Gh, at the beginning of a word, has the sound of the hard g; as, 
ghost, ghastly ; in the middle, and sometimes at the end, it is quite 
silent; as in right, high, plough, mighty. 

At the end it has often the sound of/; as in laugh, cough, tough. 
Sometimes only the g is sounded ; as in burgh, burgher. 

H 

The sound signified by this letter, is, as before observed, an arti- 
culate sound, and not merely an aspiration. It is heard in the words, 
>.at, horse, Hull. It is seldom mute at the beginning of a word. It 
is always silent after r ; as, rhetoric, rheum, rhubarb. 

H final, preceded by a vowel, is always silent ; as, ah ! hah ! oh ! 
foh ! Sarah, Messiah. 

From the faintness of the sound of this letter, in many words, and 
its total silence in others, added to the negligence of tutors, and the 
inattention of pupils, it has happened, that many persons have be- 
come almost incapable of acquiring its just and full pronunciation. 
It is, therefore, incumbent on teachers, to be particularly careful to 
inculcate a clear and distinct utterance of this sound. 

I 

/has a long sound; as in fine: and a short one; as in fin. 

The long sxind is always marked by the e final in monosyllables , 
as thin, thine ; except give, live. Before r it is often sounded like 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a short u; as flirt, first. In some words it has the sound of e long; 
as in machine, bombazine, magazine. 

The diphthong ia is frequently sounded like ya; as in christian, 
filial, poniard; pronounced christ-yan, &c. It has sometimes the 
sound of short i; as in carriage, marriage, parliament. 

Ie sounds in general like e long; as in grief, thief, grenadier. 
It has also the sound of long i; as in die, pie, lie : and sometimes 
that of short i ; as in sieve. 

leu has the sound of long u; as in lieu, adieu, purlieu. 

Io, when the accent is upon the first vowel, forms two distinct 
syllables ; as, priory, violet, violent. The terminations tion and sion, 
are sounded exactly like the word shun ; except when the t is pre- 
ceded by s or x ; as in question, digestion, combustion, mixtion, &c. 

The triphthong ion is sometimes pronounced distinctly in two 
syllables ; as in bilious, various, abstemious. .But these vowels often 
coalesce into one syllable ; as in precious, factious, noxious. 

J* is pronounced exactly like softer; except in hallelujah, where 
it is pronounced like y. 

K 

K has the sound of c hard, and is used before e and i, where, ac- 
cording to English analogy, c would be soft; as, kept, king, skirts. 
It is not sounded before n; as in knife, knell, knocker. It is never 
doubled, except in Habbakkuk; but c is used before it, to shorten 
the vowel by a double consonant; as, cockle, pickle, sucker. 

Li 

L has always a soft liquid sound ; as in love, billow, quarrel. 
It is sometimes mute; as in half, talk, psalm. The custom is to 
double the I at the end of monosyllables ; as, mill, will, fall ; except 
where a diphthong precedes it; as, hail, toil, soil. 

Le 9 at the end of words, is pronounced like a weak el ; in which 
the e is almost mute ; as, table, shuttle. 

M 

M has always the same sound , as, murmur, monumental ; except 
in comptroller, which is pronounced controller. 

N 

iVhas two sounds: the one pure; as in man, net, noble ; the other 
a ringing sound like ng ; as in thank, banquet, &c. 

N is mute when it ends a syllable, and is preceded ty m ; as, 
hymn, solemn, autumn. 

The participial ing must always have its ringing sound ; as, writ- 
ing, reading, speaking. Some writers have supposed that when ing 
is preceded by ing, it should be pronounced in; as, singing, bring- 
ing, should be sounded singin, bringin: but as it is a good rule, with 
respect to pronunciation, to adhere to the written words, unless cus- 
tom has clearly decided otherwise, it does not seem proper to adopt 
this innovation. 



O has a long sound ; as in note, bone, obedient, over ; and a short 
one ; as in not, got, lot, trot. 

It has sometimes the short sound of u ; as, son, come, attorney 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 21 

And in some words it is sounded like oo ; as in prove, move; and 
often like au ; as in nor, for, lord. 

The diphthong oa is regularly pronounced as the long sound of 
o ; as in boat, oat. coal ; except in broad, abroad, groat, where it 
takes the sound of broad a ; as, brawd, &c. 

Oe has the sound of single e. It is sometimes long; as in foetus, 
Antceci : and sometimes short ; as in ceconomics, oecumenical. In 
doe, foe, sloe, toe, throe, hoe, and bilboes, it is sounded exactly- 
like long o. 

Oi has almost universally the double sound of a broad and e long 
united, as in boy; as boil, toil, spoil, joint, point, anoint: which 
should never be pronounced as if written bile, spile, tile, &c. 

Oo almost always preserves its regular sound; as in moon, soon, 
food. It has a shorter sound, in wool, good, foot, and a few others. 
In blood and flood it sounds like short u. Door and floor should 
always be pronounced as if written dore and flore. 

The diphthong ou has six different sounds. The first and proper 
sound is equivalent to oiv in down ; as in bound, found, surround. 

The second is that of short u; as in enough, trouble, journey. 

The third is that of oo; as in soup, youth, tournament. 

The fourth is that of long o ; as in though, mourn, poultice 

The fifth is that of short o ; as in cough, trough. 

The sixth is that of awe ; as in ought, brought, thought. 

Ow is generally sounded like ou in thou ; as in brown, dowry, 
shower. It has also the sound of long o ; as in snow, grown, bestow. 

The diphthong oy is but another form for oi, and is pronounced 
exactly like it. 

P 

P has always the same sound, except, perhaps, in cupboard, 
where it sounds like b. It is sometimes mute ; as in psalm, psalter, 
Ptolemy: and between m and /; as, tempt, empty, presumptuous. 

Ph is generally pronounced like/; as in philosophy, philanthropy, 
Philip. 

In nephew and Stephen, it has the sound of v. In apophthegm, 
pnthisis, phthisic, and phthisical, both letters are entirely dropped 

Q. 

Q is always followed by u ; as, quadrant, queen, quire 

Qu is sometimes sounded like k ; as, conquer, liquor, risque. 
R 

R has a rough sound ; as in Rome, river, rage : and a smooth one ; 
as in bard, card, regard; 

Re at the end of many words, is pronounced like a weak er : as 
in theatre, sepulchre, massacre. 

S 

S has two different sounds. 

A soft and flat sound like z ; as, besom, nasal, dismal. 

A sharp hissing sound ; as, saint, sister, Cyprus. 

It is always sharp at the beginning of words. 

At the end of words it takes the soft sound ; as, his, was, trees, 
«yes ; except in the words this, thus, us, yes, rebus, surplus, &c; 
and in words terminating with ous. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It sounds like z before ion, if a vowel goes before ; as, intrusion • 
but like s sharp,if it follows a consonant; as, conversion. It also 
sounds like z before e mute ; as, amuse ; and before y final ; as, rosy • 
and in the words bosom, desire, wisdom, &c. 

S is mute in isle, island, demesne, viscount. 

T 

T generally sounds, as in take, tempter. T before u, when the 
accent -precedes, sounds like tch ; as, nature, virtue, are pronounced, 
natchure, virtchue. Ti before a vowel has the sound of sh; as in 
salvation : except in such words as tierce, tiara, &c. and unless an 
s goes before ; as, question ; and excepting also derivatives from 
words ending in ty ; as, mighty, mightier. 

Th has two sounds : the one soft and flat ; as, thus, whether, hea- 
then: the other hard and sharp; as, thing, think, breath. 

Th, at the beginning of words, is sharp , as in thank, thick, thun- 
der: except in that, then, thus, thither, and some others. Th, at 
the end of words, is also sharp ; as, death, breath, mouth : except in 
with, booth, beneath, &c. 

Th, in the middle of words, is sharp ; as, panther, orthodox, mis- 
anthrope: except worthy, farthing, brethren, and a few others. 

Th, between two vowels, is generally flat in words purely Eng- 
lish ; as, father, heathen, together, neither, mother. 

Th, between two vowels, in words from the learned languages, 
is generally sharp ; as, apathy, sympathy, Athens, apothecary. 

Th is sometimes pronounced like simple /; as, Thomas, thyme, 
Thames, asthma. 

U 

U has three sounds, viz. 

A long sound; as in mule, tube, cubic. 

A short sound ; as in dull, gull, custard. 

An obtuse sound, like oo; as in bull, full, bushel. 

The strangest deviation of this letter from its natural sound, is in 
the words busy, business, bury, and burial ; which are pronounced 
bizzy, bizness, berry, and berrial. 

A is now often used before words beginning with u long, and an 
always before those that begin with u short; as, a union, a univer- 
sity, a useful book; an uproar, an usher, an umbrella. 

The diphthong ua, has sometimes the sound ofwa; as in assuage, 
persuade, antiquary. It has also the sound of middle a ; as in guard, 
guardian, guarantee. 

Ue is often sounded like we ; as in quench, querist, conquest. It 
has also the sound of long u; as in cue, hue, ague. In a few 
words, it is pronounced like e short; as in guest, guess. In some 
words it is entirely sunk ; as in antique, oblique, prorogue, cata- 
logue, dialogue, &c. 

Ui is frequently pronounced wi; as in languid, anguish, extin- 

fuish. It has sometimes the sound of i long ; as in guide, guile, 
isguise : and sometimes that of i short; as in guilt, guinea, GuildhalL 
In some words it is sounded like long u ; as in juice, suit, pursuit 
and after r, like oo ; as in bruise, fruit, recruit. 

Uo is pronounced like too ; as in quote, quorum, quondam. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 23 

Uy has the sound of long e ; as in obloquy, soliloquy ; pronounced 
obloquee, &c. ; except buy, and its derivatives. 

Fhas the sound of flat /; and bears the same relation to it, as b 
does to p, d to /, hard g to k, and z to s. It has also one uniform 
sound ; as, vain, vanity, love. 

W 

W, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of oo; as water re- 
sembles the sound of ooater ; but that it has a stronger and quicker 
sound than oo, and has a formation essentially different, will appear 
to any person who pronounces, with attention, the words wo, woo, 
beware ; and who reflects that it will not admit the article an before 
it ; which oo would admit. In some words it is not sounded ; as in 
answer, sword, wholesome ; it is always silent before r, as in wrap, 
wreck, wrinkle, wrist, wrong, wry, bewray, &c. 

W before h is pronounced as if it were after the h ; as, why, hwy ; 
when, hwen ; what, hwat. 

W is often joined to o at the end of a syllable, without affecting 
the sound of that vowel ; as in crow, blow, grow, know, row, flow, 
&c. 

When w is a vowel, and is distinguished in the pronunciation, it 
has exactly the same sound as u would have in the same situation ; 
as, draw, crew, view, now, sawyer, vowel, outlaw. 

X 

X has three sounds, viz. 

It is sounded like z at the beginning of proper names of Greek 
original : as in Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes. 

It has a sharp sound like ks, when it ends a syllable with the ac- 
cent upon it ; as exit, exercise, excellence ; or when the accent is 
on the next syllable, if it begins with a consonant; as, excuse, ex- 
tent, expense. 

It has, generally, a flat sound like gz, when the accent is not on 
it, and the following syllable begins with a vowel ; as, exert, exist, 
example; pronounced, egzert, egzist, egzample. 

Y, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of ee ; as, youth, York, 
resemble the sound of eeouth, eeork : but that this is not its exact 
sound, will be clearly perceived by pronouncing the words ye, yes, 
new-year, in which its just and proper sound is ascertained. It not 
only requires a stronger exertion of the organs of speech to pro- 
nounce it, than is required to pronounce ee ; but its formation is 
essentially different. It will not admit of an before it, as ee will in 
the following example; an eel. The opinion that y and w, when 
they begin a w T ord or syllable, take exactly the sound of ee and oo, 
has induced some grammarians to assert, that these letters are al- 
ways vowels or diphthongs. 

When y is a vowel, it has exactly the same sound as i would have 
in the same situation ; as, rhyme, system, justify, pyramid, party 
fancy, hungry. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Z 

Z has the sound of an s uttered with a cJoser compression of the 
palate by the tongue : it is the flat s; as, freeze, frozen, brazen. 

It may be proper to remark, that the sounds of the letters vary, 
as they are differently associated, and that the pronunciation of these 
associations depends upon the position of the accent. It may also 
be observed, that, in order to pronounce accurately, great attention 
must be paid to the vowels which are not accented. There is scarcely 
any thing which more distinguishes a person of a poor educa- 
tion, from a person of a good one, than the pronunciation of the un- 
accented vowels. When vowels are under the accent, the best speak- 
ers and the lowest of the people, with vary few exceptions, pro- 
nounce them in the same manner; but the unaccented vowels in the 
mouths of the former, have a distinct, open, and specific sound, 
while the latter often totally sink them, or change them into some 
other sound. 

SECTION III. 

The nature of articulation explained. 

A concise account of the origin and formation of the sounds 
emitted by the human voice, may, perhaps, not improperly, be here 
introduced. It may gratify the ingenious student, and serve to ex- 
plain more fully the nature of articulation, and the radical distinc- 
tion between vowels and consonants. 

Human voice is air sent out from the lungs, and so agitated or 
modified in its passage through the windpipe and larynx, as to be- 
come distinctly audible. The windpipe is that tube, which, on 
touching the forepart of our throat externally, we feel hard and un- 
even. It conveys air into the lungs for the purpose of breathing 
and speech. The top or upper part of the windpipe is called the 
larynx, consisting of four or five cartilages, that may be expanded 
or brought together, by the action of certain muscles which operate 
all at the same time. In the middle of the larynx, there is a small 
opening, called the glottis, through which the breath and voice are 
conveyed. This opening is not wider than one tenth of an inch ; 
and, therefore, the breath transmitted through it from the lungs, 
must pass with considerable velocity. The voice thus formed, is 
strengthened and softened by a reverberation from the palate and 
other hollow places in the inside of the mouth and nostrils; and as 
these are better or worse shaped for this reverberation, the voice is 
said to be more or less agreeable. 

If we consider the many varieties of sound, which one and the 
same human voice is capable of uttering, together with the small 
ness of the diameter of the glottis; and reflect, that the same diam- 
eter must always produce the same tone, and, consequently, that to 
every change of tone a correspondent change of diameter is neces- 
sary ; we must be filled with admiration at the mechanism of these 
parts, and the fineness of the fibres that operate in producing effects 
so minute, so various, and in their proportions so exactly uniform. 
For it admits of proof, that the diameter of the human glottis is ca- 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 2$ 

pable of more than sixty distinct degrees of contraction or enlarge- 
ment, by each of which a different note i3 produced; and yet the 
greatest diameter of that aperture, as before observed, does not ex* 
ceed one tenth of an inch. 

Speech is made up of articulate voices ; and what we call articu- 
lation, is performed, not by the lungs, windpipe, or larynx, but by 
the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils. 
Articulation begins not, till the breath, or voice, has passed through 
the larynx. 

The simplest articulate voices are those which proceed from an 
open mouth, and are by grammarians called vowel sounds. In trans- 
mitting these, the aperture of the mouth may be pretty large, or 
somewhat smaller or very small; which is one cause of the variety 
of vowels ; a particular sound being produced by each particular 
aperture. Moreover, in passing through an open mouth, the voice 
may be gently acted upon, by the lips, or by the tongue and palate, 
or by the tongue and throat; whence another source of variety in 
vowel sounds. 

Thus ten or twelve simple vowel sounds may be formed, agree- 
ably to the plan in page 13 ; and the learners, by observing the posi- 
tion of tneir mouth, lips, tongue, &. when they are uttering the 
sounds, will perceive that various operations of these organs of 
speech, are necessary to the production of the different vowel sounds; 
and that by minute variations they may ail be distinctly pronounced. 

When trie voice, in its passage through the mouth, is totally in* 
tercepted, or strongly compressed, there is formed a certain modifica- 
tion of articulate sound, which, as expressed by a character in writ- 
ing, is called a consonant. Silence is the effect of a total intercep- 
tion ; and indistinct sound, of a strong compression ; and therefore 
a consonant is not of itself a distinct articulate voice ; and its influ- 
ence in varying the tones of language is not clearly perceived, un- 
less it be accompanied by an opening of the mouth, that is, by a 
vowel. 

By making the experiment with attention, the student will per- 
ceive that each of the mutes is formed by the voice being intercept- 
ed, by the lips, by the tongue and palate, or by the tongue and 
throat ; and that, the semi-vowels are formed by the same organs 
strongly compressing the voice in its passage, but not totally inter- 
cepting it. 

The elements of language, according to the different seats where 
they are formed, or the several organs of speech chiefly concerned 
in their pronunciation, are divided into several classes, and denomi- 
nated as follows : those are called labials, which are formed by the 
lips ; those dentals, that are formed with the teeth ; palatals, that are 
formed by the palate ; and nasals, that are formed by the nose. 

The importance of obtaining, in early life, a clear, distinct, and 
accurate knowledge of the sounds of the first principles of language, 
and a wish to lead young minds to a further consideration of a sub- 
ject so curious and useful, have induced the compiler to bestow 
particular attention of* the preceding part of this work. Some 
writers think that these subjects do not properly constitute any part 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of grammar; and consider them as the exclusive province of the 
spelling-book; but if we reflect, that letters and theif sounds are the 
constituent principles of that art, which teaches us to speak and 
write with propriety, and that, in general, very little knowledge of 
their nature is acquired by the spelling-book, we must admit^that 
they properly belong to grammar; and that a rational consideration 
ot these elementary principles of language is an object that demands 
the attention of the young grammarian. The sentiments of a very 
judicious and eminent writer (Quinctilian) respecting this part of 
grammar, may, perhaps, be properly introduced on the present 
occasion r 



"Let no person despise, as inconsiderable, the elements of gram- 
mar because it may seem to them a matter of small consequence, 
to show the distinction between vowels and consonants, and to di- 
vide the latter into liquids and mutes. But they who penetrate into 
the innermost parts of this temple of science, will there discover 
such refinement and subtility of matter, as are not only proper to 
sharpen the understandings of young persons, but sufficient to ffive 
exercise tor the most profound knowledge and erudition " 

The elementary sounds, under their smallest combination, produce 
a syllable; syllables properly combined produce a word; words duly 
combined produce a sentence; and sentences properly combined 
produce an oration or discourse. Thus it is, says Harris, in his 
Hermes, that to principles apparently so trivial as a few plain ele- 
mentary sounds, we owe that variety of articulate voices, which 
has been sufficient to explain the sentiments of so innumerable a 
multitude, as all the present and past generations of men. 

CHAPTER II. 

OF SYLLABLES, AND 7THE RULES FOJl ARRANGING THEM. 

A syllable is a sound, either simple or compound- 
ed, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and 
constituting a word, or part of a word : as, a, an, ant. 

Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into 
their syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper 

IK L Lfc?l o t 

The following are the general rules for the division of words into 
syllables. 

1. A single consonant between two vowels, must be joined to the 
latter syllable : as, de-light bn-dal, re- source : except the letter x • 
as, ex-ist, ex-amine : and except likewise words compounded; as! 
up-on, un-even, dis-ease. 

2 'c '^7° consonants proper to begin a word, must not be separated ; 
as, ia-ble, sti-fle. But when they come between two vowels, and 
are such as cannot begin a word, they must be divided ; as, ut-most, 
un-der, m-sect, er-ror, cof-fin. 

3 When three consonants meet in the middle of a word, if they 
can begin a word, and tne preceding vowel be pronounced long, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 

they are not to be separated; as, de-throne, de-stroy. But when 
the vowel of the preceding syllable is pronounced short, one of th» 
consonants always belongs to that syllable ; as, dis-tract, dis-prove % 
dis-train. 

4. When three or four consonants, which are not proper to begin 
a syllable, meet between two vowels, such of them as can begin a 
syllable belong to the latter, the rest to the former syllable : as, ab- 
stain, com-plete, em-broil, dan-dler, dap-ple, con-strain, hand-some, 
parch-ment. 

5. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be divided into sepa- 
rate syllables; as, cru-el, de-ni-al, so-ci-e-ty. 

6. Compounded words must be traced into the simple words of 
which they are composed ; as, ice-house, glow-worm, over-power, 
never-the-less. 

7. Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are generally 
separated: as, teach-est, teach-eth, teach-ing, teach-er, contend-est, 
great-er, wretch-ed ; good-ness, free-dom, false-hood. 

The rules for dividing words into syllables, with the reasons in 
support of them, are expressed at large in the author's English 
Spelling-book, Thirteenth, or any subsequent, edition, page 210— 
215. 

CHAPTER III. 

Of w t ords in general, and the rules for spelling them. 

Words are articulate sounds used, by common con- 
sent, as signs of our ideas. 

A word of one syllable is termed a Monosyllable; 
a word of two syllables, a Dissyllable ; a word of three 
syllables, a Trisyllable 5 and a word of four or more 
syllables, a Polysyllable. 

All words are either primitive or derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced 
to any simpler word in the language: as, man, good, 
content. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to 
another word in English of greater simplicity : as, 
manful, goodness, contentment, Yorkshire.* 

There are many English words which, though compounds in other 
languages, are to us primitives: thus, circumspect, circumvent, cir- 
cumstance, delude, concave, complicate, &c. Primitive words in 
English will be found derivatives, when traced in the Latin tongue. 

'the orthography of the English Language is attended with much 
uncertainty and perplexity. But a considerable part of this incon- 
venience may be remedied, by attending to the general laws of for- 

* A compound word is included under the head of derivative words : as, pen- 
knife, teacup, looking glass ; may be reduced to other words of greater simplicity. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mation; and, for this end, the learner is presented with a view of 
such general maxims in spelling primitive and derivative words, aa 
have been almost universally received. 

RULE I. 

Monosyllables ending with/, Z, or s, preceded by a single vowel, 
double the final consonant : as, staff, mill, pass, &,c. The only ex- 
ceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, and thus. 

RULE II. 

Monosyllables ending with any consonant but /, Z, or s, and pre- 
ceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant; except- 
ing add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. 

RULE III. 

Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form the plurals 
of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles, com- 
paratives, and superlatives, by changing y into i : as, spy, spies ; I 
carry, thou earnest ; he carrieth, or carries ; carrier, carried ; happy, 
happier, happiest. 

The present participle in ing, retains the y, that i may not be 
doubled; as, carry, carrying; bury, burying, &c. 

But y, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is not 
changed ; as, boy, boys : I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, &c. ; except in lay, 
pay, and say ; from which are formed, laid, paid, and said ; and their 
compounds, unlaid, unpaid unsaid, &c. 

RULE IV. 

Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon assuming 
an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, commonly change 
y into i ; as, happy, happily, happiness. But when y is preceded 
by a vowel, it is very rarely changed in the additional syllable ; as, 
coy, coyly ; boy, boyish, boyhood ; annoy, annoyer, annoyance ; joy, 
joyless, joyful. 

RULE V. 

Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending 
with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that 
consonant, when they take another syllable beginning with a vowel : 
as, wit, witty ; thin, thinnish ; to abet, an abettor ; to begin, a be- 
ginner. 

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding 
syllable, the consonant remains single : as, to toil, toiling ; to offer, 
an offering; maid, maiden, &c. 

RULE VI. 

Words ending with any double letter but Z, and taking ness, less % 
ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, harmlessness, 
carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful, distressful, &c. But 
those words which end with double Z, and take ness, less, ly, or ful, 
after them, generally omit one Z; as fulness, skilless, fully, skil- 
ful, &c. 

RULE VII. 

Ness, less, ly, and/wZ, added to words ending with silent e, do not 
cut it off: as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful; except in a few 
words; as, duly, truly, awful. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 29 

RULE VIII. 

Ment, added to words ending with silent e, generally preserves 
the e from elision ; as, abatement, chastisement, incitement, &c. 
The words judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are deviations 
from the rule. 

Like other terminations, ment changes y into i, when preceded 
by a consonant: as, accompany, accompaniment ; merry, merriment. 

RULE IX. 

Able, and ihle, when incorporated into words ending with silent 
e, almost always cut it off: as, blame, blamable - % cure, curable ; sense, 
sensible, &c. : but if c or g soft comes before e in the original word, 
the e is then preserved in words compounded with able ; as, change, 
changeable ; peace, peaceable, &c. 

rule x. 

When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent e, the e is 
almost universally omitted : as, place, placing; lodge, lodging ; slave, 
slavish ; prude, prudish. ,,«,- " 

^^, RULE XI. 

Words taken into composition, often drop those letters which 
were superfluous in the simple words : as, handful, dunghil, withal, 
also, chilblain, foretel. 

The orthography of a great number of English words is far from 
being uniform, even amongst writers of distinction. Thus, honour 
and honor* inquire and enquire, negotiate and negociate, control and 
controul, expense and expence, allege and alledge, surprise and sur- 
prize, complete and compleat, connexion and connection, abridgment 
and abridgement, and many other orthographical variations, are to 
be met with in the best modern publications. Some authority for 
deciding differences of this nature, appears to be necessary : and 
where can we find one of equal pretensions with Dr. Johnson's 
Dictionary? though a few of his decisions do not appear to be war- 
ranted by the principles of etymology and analogy, the stable foun- 
dations of his improvements. — "As the weight of truth and reason 
(says Nares in his "Elements of Orthoepy") is irresistible, Dr. 
Johnson's Dictionary has nearly fixed the external form of our lan- 
guage. Indeed, so convenient is it to have one acknowledged 
standard to recur to ; so much preferable, in matters of this nature, 
is a trifling degree of irregularity, to a continual change, and fruit- 
less pursuit of unattainable perfection ; that it is earnestly to be 
hoped, that no author will henceforth, on light grounds, be tempted 
to innovate." 

This Dictionary, however, contains some orthographical incon- 
sistencies, which ought to be rectified : such as, immovable movea- 
ble, chastely chastness, fertileness fertily, sliness slyly , fearlessly f ear" 
lesness, needlessness needlesly. If these, and similar irregularities, 
were corrected by spelling the word3 analogically, according to the 
first word in each part of the series, and agreeably to the general 
rules of spelling, the Dictionary would doubtless, in these respects, 
be improved. 



PART II. 

ETYMOLOGY 



CHAPTER I. 

A General View of the Parts of Speech. 

The second part of grammar is etymology, which 
treats of the different sorts of words, their various 
modifications, and their derivation. 

There are, in English, nine sorts of words, or, as 
they are commonly called, parts of speech ; namely, 
the article, the substantive or noun, the adjective, 
the pronoun, the verb, the adverb, the preposition, 
the conjunction, and the interjection. 

1. An Article is a word prefixed to substantives, to 
point them out, and to show how far their signification 
extends : as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. 

2. A Substantive or noun is the name of any thing 
that exists, or of which we have any notion : as London, 
man, virtue. 

A Substantive may, in general, be distinguished by its taking an 
article before it, or by its making sense of itself: as, a book, the 
sun, an apple ; temperance, industry, chastity. 

3. An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, 
to express its quality: as, "An industrious man; a 
virtuous woman." 

An Adjective may be known by its making sense with the ad- 
dition of the word thing; as, a good thing; a bad thing: or of any 
particular substantive ; as, a sweet apple, a. pleasant prospect, a lively 
boy. 

4. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to 
avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word: as, 
"The man is happy; he is benevolent; he is useful." 

5. A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or 
to suffer: as, "1 am; I rule; I am ruled." 

A Verb may generally be distinguished, by its its making sense 
with any of the personal pronouns, or the word to before it : as, I 
walk, he plays, they write ; or, to walk, to play, to write . 



ETYMOLOGY. 31 

6. An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, 
an adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to ex- 
press some quality or circumstance respecting it: as, 
" He reads well; a truly good man; he writes very 
correctly." 

An Adverb may be generally known, by its answering to the 
question, How? how much? when? or where? as, in the phrase 
"He reads correctly " the answer to the question, How does he read ? 
is, correctly. 

7. Prepositions serve to connect words with one an- 
other, and to show the relation between them : as, 
" He want from London to York ;" " she is above dis- 
guise;' 5 "they are supported by industry." 

A Preposition may be known by its admitting after it a personal 
pronoun, in the objective case; as, with, for, to 8cc. will allow the 
objective case after them ; with him, for her, to them, &c. 

8. A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly 
used to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more 
sentences, to make but one : it sometimes connects 
only words: as, "Thou and he are happv, because 
you are good." " Two and three are five." 

9. Interjections are words thrown in between the 
parts of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions 
of the speaker : as, " O virtue ! how amiable thou art!" 

The observations which have been made, to aid learners in dis- 
tinguishing the parts of speech from one another, may afford them 
some small assistance ; but it will certainly be much more instruc- 
tive, to distinguish them by the definitions, and an accurate know- 
ledge of their nature. 

In the following passage, ail the parts of speech are exemplified : 
1 272512 3 72 85 

The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man; and was 
57474 3 2713 8 

bestowed on him by his beneficent Creator, for the greatest and 

6 3 2 89 6654547 

most excellent uses ; but alas ! how often do we pervert it to 
13 7 2 

the worst of purposes ! 

In the foregoing sentence, the words, the, a, are articles ; pcnvet, 
speech, faculty, man, Creator, uses, purposes, are substantives ; pe 
culiar, beneficent, greatest, excellent, words, are adjectives ; him, his, 
we, it, are pronouns ; is, was? bestowed, do, pervert, are verbs ; most^ 
how, often, are adverbs ; of, to, on, by, for, are prepositions : and, 
but, are conjunctions ; and alas is an interjection. 

The number of the different sorts of words, or of the parts of 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

speech, has been variously reckoned by different grammarian? 
Some have enumerated ten, making the participle a distinct part 
some eight, excluding the participle, and ranking the adjective 
under the noun ; some four, and others only two, (the noun and the 
verb,) supposing the rest to be contained in the parts of their 
division. We have followed those authors, who appear to have 
given them the most natural and intelligible distribution. Some 
remarks on the division made by the learned Home Tooke, are 
contained in the first section of the eleventh chapter of etymology. 
The interjection, indeed, seems scarcely worthy of being con- 
sidered as a part of artificial language or speech, being rather a 
branch of that natural language, which we possess in common with 
the brute creation, and by which we express the sudden emotions 
and passions that actuate our frame. But, as it is used in written 
as well as oral language, it may, in some measure, be deemed a 
part of speech. It is with us, a virtual sentence, in which the noun 
and verb are concealed under an imperfect or indigested word. — 
See this Chapter, in the octavo Grammar 

CHAPTER II. 
OF the articles. 

An article is a word prefixed to substantives, to 
point them out, and to show how far their signification 
extends : as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. 

In English, there are but two articles, a and the: 
a becomes an before a vowel,* and before a silent h ; 
as, an acorn, an hour. But if the h be sounded, the 
a only is to be used ; as, a hand, a heart, a highway. 

The inattention of writers and printers to this necessary distinc- 
tion, has occasioned the frequent use of an before A, when it is to 
be pronounced; and this circumstance, more than any other, has 
probably contributed to that indistinct utterance, or total omission, 
of the sound signified by this letter, which very often occurs 
amongst readers and speakers. An horse, an husband, an herald, 
an heathen, and many similar associations, are frequently to be 
found in works of taste and merit. To remedy this evil, readers 
should be taught to omit, in all similar cases, the sound of the n, 
a-nd to give the h its full pronunciation. 

A or an is styled the indefinite article : it is used in 
a vague sense, to point out one single thing of the kind, 
in other respects indeterminate : as, "Give meabook;" 
6fc Bring me an apple." 

The is called the definite article ; because it ascer- 
tains what particular thing or things are meant : as, 

* *>9 instead of an is now used before words begginning with u long. See page 
92, letter U. It i? also used before, one ; as many a one. 



K 1 YMOLOGY. St 

w Give me the book ;" " Bring me the apples ;" mean- 
ing some book, or apples, referred to. 

A substantive without any article to limit it, is 
generally taken in its widest sense: as, " A candid 
temper is proper for man ;" that is, for all mankind. 

The peculiar use and importance of the articles will be seen in 
the following examples; " the son of a king — the son of the king 
— a son of the king." Each of these three phrases has an entirely 
different meaning, through the different application of the articles 
a and the. 

"Thou aft a man," is a very general and harmless position ; but, 
"Thou art the man," (as Nathan said to David,) is an assertion 
capable of striking terror and remorse into the heart. 

The article is omitted before nouns that imply the different vir- 
tues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c; as, 
"prudence is commendable; falsehood is odious; anger ought to be 
avoided ;" &c. It is not prefixed to a proper name ; as "Alexander," 
(because that of itself denotes a determinate individual or particular 
thing,) except for the sake of distinguishing a particular family: 
as, "He is a Howard, or of the family of the Howards ;" or byway 
of eminence : as, "every man is not a Newton;" " He has the cou- 
rage of an Achilles :" or when some noun is understood : " He sailed 
down the (river) Thames, in the (ship) Britannia," 

When an adjective is used with the noun to which the article re- 
lates, it is placed between the article and the noun ; as, " a good 
man," " an agreeable woman," " the best friend." On some occa- 
sions, however, the adjective precedes a or an; as, " such a shame," 
" as great a man as Alexander," " too careless an author." 

The indefinite article can be joined to substantives in the singular 
number only ; the definite article may be joined also to plurals. 

But there appears to be a remarkable exception to this rule, in the 
use of the adjectives few and many, (the latter chiefly with the word 
great before it,) which, though joined with plural substantives, yet 
admit of the singular article a: as, a few men ; a great many men. 

The reason of it is manifest, from the effect which the article 
has in these phrases ; it means a small or great number collectively 
taken, and therefore gives the idea of a whole, that is, of unity. 
Thus likewise, a dozen, a score, a hundred, or a thousand, is one 
whole number, an aggregate of many collectively taken , and there- 
fore still retains the article a, though joined as an adjective to a 
plural substantive ; as, a hundred years, &c. 

The indefinite article is sometimes placed between the adjective 
many, and a singular noun : as, 

" Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 

"The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear. 
" Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
" And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 

In these lines, the phrases, many a gem and many a flow'r, refei 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to many gems and many flowers, separately, not collectively consi- 
dered. 

The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the 
comparative and superlative degree ; and its effect, is, to mark the 
degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely : as 
" The more I examine it, the better I like it. I like this the least 
of any." See this Chapter, in the Octavo Grammar. 

CHAPTER III. 

OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

SECTION I. Of Substantives in general. 

A substantive or Noun is the name of any thing 
that exists, or of which we have any notion: as London, 
man, virtue. 

Substantives are either proper or common. 

Proper names or substantives, are the names appro- 
priated to individuals: as, George, London, Thames. 

Common names or substantives, stand for kinds 
containing many sorts, or for sorts containing many 
individuals under them; as, animal, man, tree, &c. 

When proper names have an article annexed to them, 
they are used as common names: as, "He is the Cicero 
of his age; he is reading the lives of the Twelve 
Ccesars. " 

Common names may also be used to signify indivi- 
duals, by the addition of articles or pronouns : as, 
" The boy is studious ; that girl is discreet."* 

To substantives belong gender, number, and case ; 
and they are all of the third person when spoken o/*, 
and of the second person when spoken to : as, " Bless- 
ings attend us on every side ; be grateful, children of 
men!" that is, ye children of men. 

SECTION II. 
Of Gender. 

Gender is the distinction of nouns, with regard to 
sex. There are three genders, the masculine, the 
feminine, and neuter. 

* Nouns may also be divided into the following classes : Collective nouns, or 
nouns of multitude; as, the people, the parliament, the army : Abstract nouns, 
or the names of qualities abstracted from their substances ; as, knowledge, good- 
ness, whiteness ; Verbal or participial nouns ; as, beginning, reading, writing. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



36 



The Masculine Gender denotes animals of the male 
cind : as, a man, a horse, a bull. 

The Feminine Gender signifies animals of the female 
fcind : as, a woman, a duck, a hen. 

The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are nei- 
ther males nor females : as, a field, a house, a garden. 

Some substantives, naturally neuter, are, by a figure 
of speech, converted into the masculine or feminine 
gender: as, when we say of the sun, he is setting; and 
of a ship, she sails well 

Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonly give the mas- 
culine gender to nouns which are conspicuous for the attributes of 
imparting or communicating, and which are by nature strong and 
efficacious. Those, again, are made feminine, which are conspicu- 
ous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or which are 
peculiarly beautiful or amiable. Upon these principles, the sun is 
said to be masculine ; and the moon, being the receptacle of the 
sun's light, to be feminine. The earth is generally feminine. A 
ship, a country, a city, &c. are likewise made feminine, being re- 
ceivers or containers. Time is always masculine, on account of its 
mighty efficacy, Virtue is feminine from its beauty, and its being 
the object of love. Fortune and the church are generally put in the 
feminine gender. 

The English language has three methods of distinguishing the 
sex, viz. 

1. By different words: as, 



Male. 
Bachelor. 
Boar. 
Boy. 
Brother. 
Buck. 
Bull. 

Bullock or 
Steer, 
Cock. 
Dog. 
Drake. 
Earl. 
Father 
Friar. 
Gander. 
Hart. 
Horse. 

Male. 
Abbot 
Actor 



Female. 
Maid. 
Sow. 
Girl. 
Sister. 
Doe. 
Cow. 

> Heifer. 

Hen. 

Bitch. 

Duck. 

Countess. 

Mother. 

Nun. 

Goose. 

Roe. 

Mare. 

2. By a difference of termination : as, 

Female. Male. Female. 

Abbess. Landgrave. Landgravine 

Actress. Lion. Lioness 



Male. 
Husband. 
King. 
Lad. 
Lord. 
Man. 
Master. 
Milter. 
Nephew. 
Ram. 

Singer. 

Sloven . 

Son. 

Stag. 

Uncle. 

Wizard. 



Female. 
Wife. 
Queen. 
Lass. 
Lady. 
Woman. 
Mistress. 
Spawner. 
Niece. 
Ewe. 

Songstress or 
Singer. 
Slut. 

Daughter. 
Hind. 
Aunt. 
Witch. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Adminstrator. 


Administratrix 


Marquis. 


Marchioness 


Adulterer. 


Adultress. 


Master. 


Mistress. 


Ambassador. 


Ambassadress. 


Mayor. 


Mayoress 


Arbiter. 


Arbitress. 


Patron. 


Patroness 


Baron. 


Baroness. 


Peer. 


Peeress 


Bridegroom. 
Benefactor. 


Bride. 


Poet. 


Poetess. 


Benefactress. 


Priest. 


Priestess. 


Caterer. 


Cateress. 


Prince. 


Princess. 


Chanter. 


Chantress. 


Prior. 


Prioress. 


Conductor. 


Conductress. 


Prophet. 


Proplfete33. 


Count. 


Countess. 


Protector. 


Protectress. 


Deacon. 


Deaconess. 


Shepherd. 


Shepherdess, 


Duke. 


Duchess. 


Songster. 


Songstress. 


Elector. 


Electress. 


Sorcerer. 


Sorceress. 


Emperor. 


Empress. 


Sultan. 


C Sultaness, or 
I Sultana. 


Enchanter. 


Enchantress 


Executor. 


Executrix. 


Tiger. 


Tigress. 


Governor. 


Governess. 


Traitor. 


Traitress. 


Heir. 


Heiress. 


Tutor. 


Tutoress. 


Hero. 


Heroine. 


Viscount. 


Viscountess. 


Hunter. 


Huntress. 


Votary. 


Votaress. 


Host. 


Hostess. 


Widower. 


Widow. 


Jew. 


Jewess. 






3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective, being 


prefixed to the s 


stantive: as, 








A cock 


sparrow. 


A hen -sparrow. 


A man- 


servant. 


A maid-servant. 


A he-goat. 


A she -goat. 




A he-bear. 


A she -bear. 




A male child. 


A female child. 


Male descendants. 


Female descendants. 



It sometimes happens, that the same noun is either masculine 01 
feminine. The words parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbor, servant, 
and several others, are used indifferently for males or females. 

Nouns with variable terminations contribute to conciseness and 
perspicuity of expression. We have only a sufficient number of 
them to make us feel our want ; for when we say of a woman, she 
is a philosopher, an astronomer, a builder, a weaver, we perceive 
an impropriety in the termination, which we cannot avoid ; but we 
can say, that she is a botanist, a student, a witness, a scholar, an 
orphan, a companion, because these terminations have not annexed 
to them the notion of sex. 



SECTION III. 
Of Number. 

Number is the consideration of an object, as one or 
more* 



ETYMOLOGY. 3? 

Substantives are of two numbers, the singular and 
the plural. 

The singular number expresses but one object; as, 
a chair, a table. 

The plural number signifies more objects than one; 
as, chairs, tables. 

Some nouns, from the nature of the things which 
they express, are used only in the singular form ; as, 
wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, &c. 5 others, only in 
the plural form; as, bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, 
&c. 

Some words are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, 
sheep, swine, &c. 

The plural number of nouns is generally formed by 
adding s to the singular: as, dove, doves; face, faces; 
thought, thoughts. But when the substantive singular 
ends in x 9 ch soft, sA, ss, or s, we add es in the plu- 
ral: as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; 
kiss, kisses; rebus, rebusses. If the singular ends in 
ch hard, the plural is formed by adding s ; as, mon- 
arch, monarchs ; distich, distichs. 

Nouns which end in 0, have sometimes es, added to the plural ; 
as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, wo : and 
sometimes only s; as, folio, nuncio, punctilio, seraglio. 

Nouns ending in/, orfe, are rendered plural by the change of 
those terminations into ves : as, loaf, loaves; half, halves; wife, 
wives : except grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form 
the plural by the addition of s. Those which end Inff, have the 
regular plural : as, ruff, ruffs ; except, staff, staves. 

Nouns which have y in the singular, with no other vowel in the 
same syllable, change it into ies in the plural : as, beauty, beauties ; 
fly, flies. But the y is not changed, when there is another vowe- 
in the syllable : as, key, keys ; delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys. 

Some nouns become plural by changing the a of the singular into 
e : as, man, men ; woman, women ; alderman, aldermen. The words, 
ox and child, form oxen and children ; brother, makes either brothers, 
or brethren. Sometimes the diphthong 00 is changed into ee in the 
plural : as, foot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth. Louse and mouse 
make lice and mice. Penny makes pence, or pennies, when the 
coin is meant: die, dice (for play;) die, dies (for coining). 

It is agreeable to analogy, and the practice of the generality of 
correct writers, to construe the following words as plural nouns : 
pains, riches, alms: and also, mathematics, metaphysics, politics, ethics, 
optics, pneumatics, with other similar names of sciences. 

Dr. Johnson savs that the adjective much is sometimes a term ol 
4 



38 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



number, as well as of quantity. This may account for the instances 
we meet with of its associating with pains as a plural noun: as, 
" much pains." The connexion, however, is not to be recommended 

The word news is now almost universally considered as belonging 
to the singular number. 

The noun means is used both in the singular and the piural num- 
ber. 

The following words, which have been adopted from the Hebrew, 
Greek, and Latin languages, are thus distinguished, with respect to 
number. 



Singular. 
Cherub. 
Seraph. 
Antithesis. 
Automaton. 
Basis. 
Crisis. 
Criterion. 
Diaeresis. 
Ellipsis. 
Emphasis. 
Hypothesis. 
Metamorphosis. 
Phenomenon. 

Appendix. < 

Arcanum. 

Axis. 

Calx. 



Plural. 
Cherubim. 
Seraphim. 
Antitheses. 
Automata. 
Bases. 
Crises. 
Criteria. 
Diaereses. 
Ellipses. 
Emphases. 
Hypotheses. 
Metamorphoses. 
Phenomena. 
Appendices or 
Appendixes. 
Arcana. 
Axes. 
Calces. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Datum. 


Data. 


Effluvium. 


Effluvia. 


Encomium. 


C Encomia, or 
I Encomiums. 




Erratum. 


Errata. 


Genius. 


Genii.* 


Genus. 


Genera. 


Index. 


£ Indices or 




I Indexes.f 


Lamina. 


Laminae 


Medium. 


Media. 


Magus. 


Magi. 


Memoran- 


£ Memoranda or 
( Memorandums, 


dum. 


Radius. 


Radii. 


Stamen. 


Stamina. 


Stratum. 


Strata. 


Vortex. 


Vortices. 



Some words, derived from the learned languages, are confined to 
the plural number: as, antipodes, credenda, literati, minutiae. 

Tne following nouns being, in Latin, both singular and plural, are 
used in the same manner when adopted into our tongue : hiatus, 
apparatus, series, species. 

SECTION IV. 

Of Case. 

In English, substantives have three cases, the nomi- 
native, the possessive, and the objective. J 

The nominative case simply expresses the name of 
a thing, or the subject of the verb: as, " The boy 
plays 5" " The girls learn." 

* Genii, when denoting aerial spirits : Geniuses, when signifying persons of 
genius. 

f Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or Tables of contents : Indices, when re- 
ferring to Algebraic quantities. 

t The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case ; and the objective, the 
accusative. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



39 



The possessive case expresses the relation of property 
or possession ; and has an apostrophe with the letter s 
coming after it : as, " The scholar's duty;" u My fa- 
ther's house." 

When the plural ends in s, the other s is omitted, 
but the apostrophe is retained : as, "on eagles' wings;" 
" The drapers' company." 

Sometimes, also, when the singular terminates in ss, 
the apostrophic s is not added: as, "For goodness' 
sake;" "For righteousness' sake," 

The objective case expresses the object of an action, 
or of a relation; and generally follows a verb active, 
or a preposition: as, "John assists Charles;" "They 
live in London." 

English substantives are declined in the following 
manner: 

Singular. Plural. 

A mother. Mothers. 

A mother's. Mothers' 

A mother. Mothers* 

The man. The men. 

The man's. The men's. 

The man. The men. 

The English language, to express different connexions and rela- 
tions of one thing to another, uses, for the most part, prepositions. 
The Greek and Latin among the ancient, and some too among the 
modern languages, as the German, vary the termination or ending 
of the substantive, to answer the same purpose ; an example of 
which, in the Latin, is inserted, as explanatory of the nature and 
use of cases, viz. 



Nominative Case. 
Possessive Case. 
Objective Case. 
Nominative Case. 
Possessive Case. 
Objective Case. 



Nominative. 

Genitive. 

Dative. 

Accusative. 

Vocative. 

Ablative. 

Nominative. 

Genitive. 

Dative. 

Accusative. 

Vocative. 

Ablative. 



Singular. 

DOMINUS, 

Domini, 

Domino, 

Dominum, 

Domine, 

Domino, 

Plural. 
Domini, 
Dominortjm, 
Dominis, 

DOMINOS, 

Domini, 
Dominis, 



A Lord. 

Lord's, of a Lord. 

To a Lord. 

A Lord. 

O Lord. 

By a Lord. 

Lords. 

Lords', of Lords. 

To Lords. 

Lords. 

O Lords. 

By Lords. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Some writers think, that the relations signified by the addition ol 
articles and prepositions to the noun, may properly be denominated 
cases, in English; and that, on this principle, there are, in our lan- 
guage, as many cases as in the Latin tongue. But to this mode of 
forming cases for our substantives, there are strong objections. It 
would, indeed, be a formal and useless arrangement of nouns, 
articles, and prepositions. If an arrangement of this nature were to 
be considered as constituting eases, the English language would 
have a much greater number of them than the Greek and Latin 
tongues : for, as every preposition has its distinct meaning and effect, 
every combination of a preposition and article with the noun would 
form a different relation, and would constitute a distinct case. — 
This would encumber our language with many new terms, and a 
heavy and useless load of distinctions.* 

On the principle of imitating other languages in names and formSj 
without a correspondence in nature and idiom, we might adopt a 
number of declensions, as well as a variety of cases, for English 
substantives. Thus, five or six declensions, distinguished according 
to the various modes of forming the plural of substantives, with at 
least half a dozen cases to each declension, would furnish a complete 
arrangement of English nouns, in all their trappings. See on this 
subject, the fifth ana ninth sections of the sixth chapter of etymology. 

But though this variety of cases does not at all correspond with 
the idiom ol our language, there seems to be great propriety in ad- 
mitting a case in English substantives, which shall serve to denote 
the objects of active verbs and of prepositions ; and which is, there- 
fore, properly termed the objective case. The general idea of case 
doubtless has a reference to the termination of the noun : but there 
are many instances, both in Greek and Latin, in which the nomina- 
tive and accusative cases have precisely the same form, and are 
distinguished only by the relation they bear to other words in the 
sentence. We are therefore warranted, by analogy, in applying 
this principle to our own language, as far as utility, and the idiom 
of it, will admit. Now it is obvious, that in English, a noun govern- 
ed by an active verb, or a preposition, is very differently circum- 
stanced, from a noun in the nominative, or in the possessive case ; 
and that a comprehensive case, correspondent to that difference, 
must be useful and proper. The business of parsing, and of show- 
ing the connexion and dependence of words, will be most con- 
veniently accomplished, by the adoption of such a case ; and the 
irregularity of having our nouns sometimes placed in a situation, in 
which they cannot be said to be in any case at all, will be avoided. 

The author of this work long doubted the propriety of assigning 
to English substantives an objective case : but a renewed, critical 
examination of the subject, an examination to which he was prompted 

* If cases are to be distinguished by the different significations of the noun, or 
by the different relations it may bear to the governing word, then we have in 
our language as many cases almost, as there are prepositions : and above a man, 
beneath a man, beyond a man, round about a man, within a man, without a 
man. &c. shall be cases, as well as, of a man, to a man, and with a man" 

Dr. fteattie 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 

by the extensive and increasing demand for the grammar, ha? 
produced in his mind a full persuasion, that the nouns of our lan- 
guage are entitled to this comprehensive objective case. 

When the thing to which another is said to belong, is expressed 
by a circumlocution, or by many terms, the sign of the possessive 
case is commonly added to the last term : as, "The king of Great 
Britain's dominions" 

Sometimes, though rarely, two nouns in the possessive case im- 
mediately succeed each other, in the following form: "My friend's 
wife's sister;" a sense w r hich would be better expressed by saying, 
"the sister of my friend's wife ;" or, "my friend's sister-in-law." 
Some grammarians say, that in each of the following phrases, viz. 
" A book of my brother's," A servant of the queen's," " A soldier of 
the king's," there are two genitive cases; the first phrase implying, 
"one of the books of my brother," the next, "one of the servants of 
the queen;" and the last, "one of the soldiers of the king." But 
as the preposition governs the objective case ; and as there are not, 
in each of these sentences, two apostrophes with the letter s coming 
after them, we cannot with propriety say, that there are two ^enitive 
cases. 

CHAPTER IV. 

OF ADJECTIVES. 

SECTION I. Of the nature of Adjectives, and the degrees of 
comparison. 

An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to 
express its quality: as, " An industrious man 5" "A 
virtuous woman ;" " A benevolent mind." 

In English, the adjective is not varied on account 
of gender, number, or case. Thus we say, " A care- 
less boy; careless girls." 

The only variation which it admits, is that of the 
degrees of comparison. 

There are commonly reckoned three degrees of com- 
parison ; the positive, the comparative, and the super- 
lative. 

Grammarians have generally enumerated these three degrees of 
comparison ; but the first of them has been thought by some writers, 
to be, improperly, termed a degree of comparison ; as it seems to be 
nothing more than the simple form of the adjective, and not to imply 
either comparison or degree. This opinion may be well founded, 
unless the adjective be supposed to imply comparison or degree, by 
containing a secret or general reference to other things : as, when 
we say, "he is a tall man," "this is a fair day." we make some 
reference to the ordinarv size of men, and to different weather. 
4* 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Positive state expresses the quality of an object, 
without any increase or diminution : as, good, wise, 
great. 

The Comparative Degree increases or lessens the 
positive in signification : as, wiser, greater, less wise. 

The Superlative Degree increases or lessens the 
positive to the highest or lowest degree: as, wisest, 
greatest, least wise. 

The simple word, or positive, becomes the compara- 
tive, by adding r or er; and the superlative, by adding 
st or est, to the end of it: as, wise, wiser, wisest, 
great, greater, greatest. And the adverbs more and 
most, placed before the adjective, have the same effect: 
as, wise, more wise, most wise. 

The termination ish may be accounted in some sort a degree of 
comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the 
positive : as, black, blackish, or tending to blackness ; salt, saltish, 
or having a little taste of salt. 

The word rather is very properly used to express a small degree 
or excess of a quality ; as, "she is rather profuse in her expenses." 

Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by er and est ; 
and dissyllables by more and most : as, mild, milder, mildest; frugal, 
more frugal, most frugal. Dissyllables ending in y; as, happy, 
lovely; and in le after a mute, as, able, ample ; or accented on the 
last syllable, as, discreet, polite; easily admit of er and est: as, hap- 
pier, happiest ; abler, ablest ; politer, politest. Words of more than 
two syllables hardly ever admit of those terminations. 

In some words the superlative is formed by adding the adverb 
most to the end of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost, or utmost, under- 
most, uppermost, foremost. 

In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very 
common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better 
of analogy,) that are irregular in this respect: as, "good, better, 
best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; much or many, more, 
most; near, nearer, nearest or next; late, later, latest or last; old, 
older or elder, oldest or eldest ;" and a few others. 

An adjective put without a substantive, with the definite article 
before it, becomes a substantive in sense and meaning, an^ is written 
as a substantive ; as, " Providence rewards the good, and punishes 
the bad." 

Various nouns placed before other nouns assume the nature of 
adjectives ; as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, meadow ground, &c. 

Numeral adjectives are either cardinal, or ordinal : cardinal, as, 
one, two, three, &c. ; ordinal, as, first, second, third, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY. 48 

SECTION II. 

Remarks on the subject of Comparison. 

If we consider the subject of comparison attentively, we snail 
perceive that the degrees of it are infinite in number, or at least in- 
definite. — A mountain is larger than a mite ; — by how many de- 
grees ? How much bigger is the earth than a grain of sand ? By how 
many degrees was Socrates wiser than Alcibiades ? or by how many 
is snow whiter than this paper? It is plain, that to these and the like 
questions, no definite answers can be returned. 

In quantities, however, that may be exactly measured, the degrees 
of excess may be exactly ascertained. A foot is just twelve times 
as long as an inch ; and an hour is sixty times the length of a minute. 
But, in regard to qualities, and to those quantities which cannot be 
measured exactly, it is impossible to say now many degrees may be 
comprehended in the comparative excess. 

But though these degrees are infinite or indefinite in fact, they 
cannot be so in language ; nor would it be convenient, if language 
were to express many of them. In regard to unmeasured quantities 
and qualities, the degrees of more and less, (besides those marked 
above,) may be expressed intelligibly, at least, if not accurately, by 
certain adverbs, or words of like import : as, " Socrates was much 
wiser than Alcibiades ;" " Snow is a great deal whiter than this pa- 
per;" "Epaminondas was by far the most accomplished of the 
Thebans ; "The evening star is a very splendid object, but the sun 
is incomparably more splendid;' 3 "The Deity is infinitely greater 
than the greatest of his creatures." The inaccuracy of these, and 
the like expressions, is not a material inconvenience ; and, if it 
were, it is unavoidable : for human speech can only express human 
thought; and where thought is necessarily inaccurate, language must 
be so too. 

When the word very, exceedingly, or any other of similar import, 
is put before the positive, it is called by some writers the superla- 
tive of eminence, to distinguish it from the other superlative, which 
has been already mentioned, and is called the superlative of com- 
parison . Thus, very eloquent, is termed the superlative of eminence ; 
most eloquent, the superlative of comparison. In the superlative of 
eminence, something of comparison is, however, remotely or indi- 
rectly intimated; for we cannot reasonably call a man very eloquent, 
without comparing his eloquence with the eloquence of other men. 

The comparative may be so employed, as to express the same 
pre-eminence or inferiority as the superlative. Thus, the sentence, 
"Of all acquirements, virtue is the most valuable," conveys the 
same sentiment as the following; "Virtue is more valuable than 
every other acquirement." 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER V. 
OF PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to 
avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word : as, 
" The man is happy; he is benevolent; he is useful." 

There are three kinds of pronouns, viz. the perso- 
nal, the relative, and the adjective pronouns. 

SECTION I. 
Of the Personal Pronouns. 

There are five Personal Pronouns, viv. 7, thou, he, 
she, it; with their plurals, we, ye or you, they. 

Personal pronouns admit of person, number, gender, 
and case. 

The persons of pronouns are three in each number, 
viz. 

/, is the first person 1 

Thou, is the second person ^Singular. 

He, she, or it, is the third person J 

We, is the first person 1 

Ye or you, is the second person L Plural. 

They, is the third person J 

This account of persons will be very intelligible, when we reflect, 
that there are three persons who may be the subject of any discourse : 
first, the person who speaks, may speak of himself, secondly, he 
may speak of the person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he 
may speek of some other person : and as the speakers, the persons 
spoken to, and the other person spoken of, may be many, so each 
of these persons must have the plural number. 

The numbers of pronouns, like those of substantives 
are two, the singular and the plural : as, I, thou, he 
we, ye, or you, they. 

Gender has respect only to the third person singular 
of the pronouns, he, she, it. He is masculine ; she is 
feminine ; it is neuter. 

The persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same time the 
subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be present ; from which, 
and other circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and needs 
not to be marked by a distinction of gender in the pronouns; but 
the third person, or thing spoken of, being absent, and in many re- 
spects rniknown, it is necessary that it should be marked by a dis- 



ETYMOLOGY. 



45 



tinction of gender ; at least when some particular person or thing is 
spoken of, that ought to be more distinctly marked : accordingly the 
pronoun singular of the third person has the three genders, he, 
she, it. 

Pronouns have three cases ; the nominative, the pos- 
sessive, and the objective. 

The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a form different 
from that of the nominative, or the possessive case, 

The personal pronouns are thus declined: 



Person. 


Case. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


First. 


Nom. 


I. 


We. 




Poss. 


Mine. 


Ours. 




Obj. 


Me. 


Us. 


Second, 


Nom 


Thou. 


Ye or you, 




Poss. 


Thine. 


Yours. 




Obj. 


Thee. 


You. 


Third. 


Nom 


He. 


They. 


Mas. 


Poss. 


His. 


Theirs. 




Obj. 


Him. 


Them. 


Third. 


Nom. 


She. 


They. 


Fern. 


Poss. 


Hers. 


Theirs. 




Obj. 


Her. 


Them. 


Third. 


Nom. 


It. 


They. 


Neuter 


Poss. 


Its. 


Theirs. 




Obj. 


It. 


Them. 






SECTION II. 


"■" , "" 



Of the Relative Pronouns. 

Relative Pronouns are such as relate in general, to 
some word or phrase going before, which is thence 
called the antecedent : they are, who, which, and that : 
as, "The man is hapyy who lives virtuously."* 

What is a kind of compound relative, including both 
the antecedent and the relative, and is mostly equiva- 
lent to that which : as, " This is what I wanted ;" that 
is to say, "the thing which I wanted." 

Who is applied to persons, which to animals and 
inanimate things: as, "He is a friend, who is faithful 

* The relative pronoun, when used interrogatively, relates to a word or phrase 
which is not antecedent, but subsequent, to the relative. See note under the VI. 
Rule of Syntax. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMER. 

in adversity ;" " The bird which sung so sweetly, is 
flown;" "This is the tree which produces no fruit. 5 ' 

That) as a relative, is often used to prevent the too 
frequent repetition of who and which. It is applied 
to both persons and things: as, "He that acts wisely 
deserves praise;" " Modesty is a quality that highly 
adorns a woman." 

Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined: 

Singular and Plural. 

Nominative. Who. 

Possessive. Whose. 

Objective. Whom. 

Which, that, and what, are likewise of both numbers, but they do 
not vary their termination ; except that whose is sometimes used as 
, the possessive case of which: as, " Is there any other doctrine whose 
followers are punished?" 

" And the fruit 

Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste 

Brought death." milton. 

" Pure the joy without alloy, 

• Whose very rapture is tranquillity." young. 

" The lights and shades, whose well accorded strife 
Gives all the strength and colour of our life." pope. 
"This is one of the clearest characteristics of its being a religion 
whose origin is divine." blair. 

By the use of this license, one word is substituted for three : as, 
" Philosophy, whose end is to instruct us in the knowledge of na- 
ture," for, "Philosophy, the end of which is to instruct us," &c. 

Who, which, and what, have sometimes the words soever and ever 
annexed to them ; as, "whosoever or whoever, whichsoever or vihich- 
ever, whatsoever or whatever :" but they are seldom used in modern 
style, 

The word that is sometimes a relative, sometimes a demonstrative 
pronoun, and sometimes a conjunction. It is a relative, when it 
may be turned into who or which without destroying the sense : as, 
" They that (who) reprove us, may be our best friends;" "From 
every thing that (which) you see, derive instruction." It is a de- 
monstrative pronoun when it is followed immediately by a substan- 
tive, to which it is either joined, or refers, and which it limits or 
qualifies: as, " That boy is industrious;" " That belongs to me;" 
meaning, that book, that desk, &c. It is a conjunction, when it 
joins sentences together, and cannot be turned into who or which, 
without destroying the sense: as, "Take care that every day be 
well employed." "I hope he will believe that I have not acted im- 
properly." 

Who, which, and what, are called Interrogatives, when they are 
used in asking questions; as "Who is he?" " Which is the book?" 
" What art thou doing ?" 



ETYMOLOGY. 47 

Whether was formerly made use of to signify interrogation : as, 
" Whether of these shall I choose ?" but it is now seldom used, the 
interrogative which being substituted for it. Some grammarians 
think that the use of it should be revived, as, like either and neither, 
it points to the dual number; and would contribute to render our 
expressions concise and definite. 

Some writers have classed the interrogatives as a separate kind 
of pronouns ; but they are too nearly related to the relative pronouns, 
both in nature and form, to render such a division proper. They 
do not, in fact, Jose the character of relatives, when they become 
interrogatives. The only difference is, that without an interrogation, 
the relatives have reference to a subject which is antecedent, 
definite, and known ; with an interrogation, to a subject which is 
subsequent, indefinite, and unknown, and which it is expected that 
the answer should express and ascertain. 

SECTION III. 
Of the Adjective Pronouns, 

Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, partici- 
pating the properties both of pronouns and adjectives. 

The adjective pronouns may be subdivided into four 
sorts, namely, the possessive, the distributive, the de- 
monstrative, and the indefinite. 

1. The possessive are those which relate to possession 
or property. There are seven of them; viz. my, thy, 
his, her, our, your, their. 

Mine and thine instead of my and thy, were formerly used before 
a substantive, or adjective, beginning with a vowel, or a silent h: 
as, "Blot out all mine iniquities." 

The pronouns, his, mine, thine, have the same form, whether they 
are possessive pronouns, or the possessive cases of their respective 
personal pronouns. See note to Rule 10. 

A few examples will probably assist the learner, to distinguish 
the possessive pronouns from the genitive cases of their correspon- 
dent personal pronouns. 

The following sentences exemplify the possessive pronouns.— 
" My lesson is finished ; Thy books are defaced ; He loves his studies ; 
She performs her duty ; We own our faults ; Your situation is dis- 
tressing ; I admire their virtues." 

The following are examples of the possessive cases of the personal 
pronouns. — " This desk is mine ; the other is thine ; These trinkets 
are his ; those are he.rs ; This house is ours, and that is yours ; Theirs 
is very commodious." 

Some grammarians consider its as a possessive pronoun. 

The two words own and self, are used in conjunction with pro- 
nouns. Own is added to possessives, both singular and plural : as, 
"My own hand, our own house." It is emphatical, and implies a 



4S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

silent contrariety or opposition : as, " I live in my own house," that 
is, not in a hired house." Self is added to possessives : as, myself, 
yourselves ; and sometimes to personal pronouns : as, himself itself 
themselves. It then, like own, expresses emphasis and opposition: 
as, " I did this myself," that is, " not another ;" or it forms a re- 
ciprocal pronoun: as, "We hurt ourselves by vain rage." 

Himself themselves, are now used in the nominative case, instead 
of hisself thcirselves ; as, "He came himself;" "He himself shall do 
this;" "They per formed it themselves." 

2. The distributive are those which denote the per- 
sons or things that make up a number, as taken sepa- 
rately and singly. They are each, every, either: as, 
''Each of his brothers is in a favorable situation ;" 
"Every man must account for himself;" " I have not 
seen either of them." 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either 
of the two, or every one of any number taken separately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one 
of them all taken separately. This pronoun was formerly used 
apart from its noun, but it is now constantly annexed to it, except 
in legal proceedings: as in the phrase, "all and every of them." 

Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, and sig- 
nifies the one or the other. To say, "either of the three," is there- 
fore improper. 

Neither, imports l( not either;" that is, not one nor the other: as, 
"Neither of my friends was there." 

3. The demonstrative are those which precisely 
point out the subjects to which they relate: this and 
that, these and those, are of this class: as, " This is 
true charity; that is only its image." 

This refers to the nearest person or thing, and that 
to the most distant: as, " This man is more intelligent 
than that." This indicates the latter or last men- 
tioned ; that, the former or first mentioned : as, "Both 
wealth and poverty are temptations; that, tends to 
excite pride, this, discontent." 

Perhaps the words former and latter may be properly ranked 
amongst the demonstrative pronouns, especially in many of their 
applications. The following sentence may serve as an example : "It 
was happy for the state, that Fabius continued in the command 
with Minucius: the former's phlegm was a check upon the latter's 
vivacity." 

4. The indefinite are those which express their sub- 
jects in an indefinite or general manner. The follow- 



ETYMOLOGY. 49 

ing are of this kind : some, other, any, one, all, such, 
&c. 

Of these pronouns, only the words one and other are varied. One 
has a possessive case, which it forms in the same manner as sub- 
tan tives : as, one, one's. This word has a general signification, mean- 
ing people at large ; and sometimes also a peculiar reference to the 
person who is speaking: as, " One ought to pity the distresses of 
mankind." " One is apt to love one's self." This word is often 
used, by good writers, in the plural number: as, "The great ones 
of the world;" "The boy wounded the old bird, and stole the young 
ones ;" "My wife and the little ones are in good health." 

Other is* declined in the following manner: 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Other Others 

Poss. Other's Others' 

Obj. Other Others. 

The plural others is only used when apart from the noun to which 
it refers, whether expressed or understood : as, " When you have 
perused these papers, I will send you the others." "He pleases 
some, but he disgusts others." When this pronoun is joined to 
nouns, either singular or plural, it has no variation: as, "the other 
man," " the other men." 

The following phrases may serve to exemplify the indefinite pro- 
nouns. " Some of you are wise and good ;" "A few of them were 
idle, the others industrious ;" " Neither is there any that is unex- 
ceptionable;" " One ought to know one's own mind;" "They were 
all present;" " Such is the state of man, that he is never at rest;" 
" Some are happy, while others are miserable." 

The word another is composed of the indefinite article prefixed to 
the word other. 

None is used in both numbers : as, "None is so deaf as he that 
will not hear;" "None of those are equal to these." It seems origi- 
nally to have signified, according to its derivation, not one, and there- 
fore to have had no plural ; but there is good authority for the use 
of it in the plural number : as, " None that go unto her return again." 
Prov. ii. 19. "Terms of peace were none vouchsafed. " Milton. 
"None of them are varied to express the gender." "None of them 
have different endings for the numbers." Lowth's Introduction. 
" None of their productions are extant." Blair. 

We have endeavoured to explain the nature of the adjective pro- 
nouns, and to distinguish and arrange them intelligibly : but it is 
difficult, perhaps impracticable, to define and divide them in a man- 
ner perfectly unexceptionable. Some of them, in particular, may 
seem to require a different arrangement. We presume, however, 
that, for every useful purpose, the present classification is suffi- 
ciently correct. All the pronouns, except the personal and relative, 
may indeed, in a general view of them, be considered as definitive 
pronouns, because they define or ascertain the extent of the com- 
mon name, or general term, to which they refer, or are joined ; but 
as each class of them does this, more or less exactly, or in a manner 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

particular to itself, a division adapted to this circumstance appears 
to be suitable to the nature of things, and the understanding of 
learners. 

It is the opinion of some respectable grammarians, that the words 
this, that, any, some, such, his, their, our, &c. are pronouns, when 
they are used separately from the nouns to which they relate ; but 
that, when they are joined to those nouns, they are not to be con- 
sidered as belonging to this species of words ; because, in this asso- 
ciation, they rather ascertain a substantive, than supply the place 
of one. They assert that, in the phrases, "give me that, "this is 
John's," and "such were some of you," the words in italics are pro- 
nouns; but that, in the following phrases, they are not pronouns; 
"this book is instructive," "some boys are ingenious," "my health 
is declining," "our hearts are deceitful," &c. Other grammarians 
think, that all these words are pure adjectives ; and that none of 
them can properly be called pronouns ; as the genuine pronoun 
stands by itself, without the aid of a noun expressed or understood. 
They are of opinion, that in the expressions, " Give me that," " this 
is John's," &c. the noun is always understood, and must be supplied 
IB the mind of the reader: as, "Give me that book;" "this book is 
John's ;" " and such persons were some persons amongst you." 

Some writers are of opinion that the pronouns should be classed 
into substantive and adjective pronouns. Under the former, they 
include the personal and the relative ; under the latter, all the others. 
But this division, though a neat one, does not appear to be accurate. 
All the relative pronouns will not range under the substantive head. 
We have distributed these parts of grammar, in the mode which we 
think most correct and intelligible : but, for the information of stu- 
dents, and to direct their inquiries on the subject, we state the dif- 
ferent opinions of several judicious grammarians. See the Octavo 
Grammar on these points. 

CHAPTER VI. 

OF VERBS. 

SECTION I. Of the nature of Verbs in general. 

A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do or to 
suffer; as, "I am, I rule, I am ruled." 

Verbs are of three kinds ; active, passive, and neu- 
ter. They are also divided into regular, irregular, 
and defective. 

A Verb Active expresses an action, and necessarily 
implies an agent, and an object acted upon : as, to 
love ; " I love Penelope. 9 ' 

A Verb Passive expresses a passion or a suffering, 
or the receiving of an action ; and necessarily implies 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 

an object acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted 

upon: as, to be loved; "Penelope is loved by me." 

A Verb Neuter expresses neither action nor passion, 

but being, or a state of being: as, "I am, I sleep, I 

sit"* 

The verb active is also called transitive, because the action passes 
over to the object, or has an effect upon some other thing as, "The 
tutor instructs his pupils;" "I esteem the man." 

Verbs neuter may properly be denominated intransitives, because 
the eifect is confined within the subject and does not pass over to 
any object : as, " I sit, he lives, they sleep.', 

Some of the verbs that are usually ranked among neuters, make 
a near approach to the nature of a verb active ; but they may be 
distinguished from it by their being intransitive : as, to run, to walk, 
to fly, &c. The rest are more obviously neuter, and more clearly 
expressive of a middle state between action and passion ; as, to 
stand, to lie, to sleep, &c. 

In English, many verbs are used both in an active and a neuter 
signification, the construction only determining of which kind they 
are : as, to flatten, signifying to make even or level, is a verb active ; 
but when it signifies to grow dull or insipid, it is a verb neuter. 

A neuter verb, by the addition of a preposition, may become a 
compound active verb. To smile is a neuter verb ; it cannot, there- 
fore, be followed by an objective case, nor be construed as a passive 
verb. We cannot say, she smiled, him, or, he was smiled. But to 
smile on being a compound active verb, we properly say, she smiled 
on him; he was smiled on by fortune in every undertaking. 

Auxiliary or helping Verbs, are those by the help of 
which the English verbs are principally conjugated. 
They are, do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, with 
their variations : and let and must, which have no 
variation. * 

In our definition of the verb, as a part of speech which signifies 

* Verbs have been distinguished by some writers, into the following kinds. 
1st. Active-transitive, or those which denote an action that passed from the 

agent to some object: as, Cesar conquered Pompey. 

2d. Active-intransitive, or those which express that kind of action, which ha3 
no effect upon any thing beyond the agent himself: as, Cesar walked. 

3d. Passive, or those which express, not action, but passion, whether pleasing 
or painful : as Portia was loved; Pompey was conquered. 

4th. Neuter, or those which express an attribute that consists neither in action 
nor passion : as, Cesar stood. 

This appears to be an orderly arrangement. But if the class of active-intran- 
sitive verbs were admitted, it would rather perplex than assist the learner: for 
the difference between verbs active and neuter, as transitive and intransitive, ia 
easy and obvious ; but the difference between verbs absolutely neuter and in- 
transitively active, is not always clear. It is, indeed, often very difficult to be 
ascertained. 

* Let, as a principal verb, has lettcst and lettcth ; but as a helping ^crb, it ad* 
raits of no variation. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



to he, to do, or to suffer, &c. we have included every thing, either 
expressly or by necessary consequence, that is essential to its na- 
ture, and nothing that is not essential to it. This definition is war- 
ranted by the authority of Dr. Lowth, and of many other respecta- 
ble writers on grammar. There are, however, some grammarians, 
who consider assertion as the essence of the verb. But, as the par- 
ticiple and the infinitive, if included in it, would prove insuperable 
objections to their scheme, they have, without hesitation, denied 
the former a place in the verb, and declared the latter to be merely 
an abstract noun. This appears to be going rather too far in sup- 
port of an hypothesis. It seems to be incumbent on these gramma- 
rians, to reject also the imperative mood. What part of speech 
would they make the verbs in the following sentence? "Depart in- 
stantly: improve your time:, forgive us our sins." Will it be said, 
that the verbs in these phrases are assertions ? 

In reply to these questions, it has been said, that " Depart instant- 
ly," is an expression equivalent to, " I desire you to depart instant- 
ly ;" and that as the latter phrase implies affirmation or assertion, 
so does the former. But, supposing the phrases to be exactly alike 
in sense, the reasoning is not conclusive. 1st. In the latter phrase, 
the only part implying affirmation, is, "I desire." The words "to 
depart," are in the infinitive mood, and contain no assertion : they 
affirm nothing. 2d. The position is not tenable, that "Equivalence 
in sense implies similarity in grammatical nature." It proves too 
much, and therefore nothing. This mode of reasoning would con- 
found the acknowledged grammatical distinction of words. A pro- 
noun, on this principle, may be proved to be a noun ; a noun, a 
verb; an adverb, a noun and preposition; the superlative degree, 
the comparative ; the imperative mood, the indicative ; the future 
tense, the present ; and so on : because they may respectively be 
resolved into -similar meanings. Thus, in the sentence, "I desire 
you to depart," the words to depart, may be called a noun, because 
they are equivalent in sense to the noun departure, in the following 
sentence, " I desire your departure." The words " depart instantly," 
may be proved to be, not the imperative mood with an adverb, but 
the indicative and infinitive, with a noun and preposition ; for they 
are equivalent to " I desire you to depart in an instant." The su- 
perlative degree in this sentence, " Of all acquirements virtue is the 
most valuable," may pass for the comparative, because it conveys 
the same sentiment as, " Virtue is more valuable than every other 
acquirement." 

We shall not pursue this subject any further, as the reader must 
be satisfied, that only the word desire, in the equivalent sentence, 
implies affirmation ; and that one phrase may, in sense, be equiva- 
lent to another, though its grammatical nature is essentially dif- 
ferent. 

To verbs belong number, person, mood, and tense. 



a- 






ETYMOLOGY. 53 

SECTION II. 

Of Number and Person. 

Verbs have two numbers, the Singular and the Plural 
as, "I run, we run," &c. 

In each number there are three persons ; as. 

Singular. Plural. 

First Person. I love. We love. 

Second Person. Thou lovest. Ye or you love. 

Third Person. He loves. They love. 

Thus the verb, in some parts of it, varies its endings, to express, 
or agree with, different persons of the same number: as, "I love. 
thou lovest; he loveth, or loves:" and also to express different num- 
bers of the same parson : as, «< thou lovest, ye love ; he loveth, they 
love." In the plural number of the verb, there is no variation of 
ending to express the different persons ; and the verb, in the three 
persons plural, is the same as it is in the first person singular. Yet 
this scanty provision of terminations is sufficient for all the purposes 
of discourse, and no ambiguity arises from it: the verb being always 
attended, either with the noun expressing the subject acting or acted 
upon, or with the pronoun representing it. For this reason, the 

f)iural termination in en, they loven, they weren, formerly in use, was 
aid aside as unnecessary, and has long been obsolete. 

SECTION III. 

Of Moods and Participles. 

Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb, 
showing the manner in which the being, action, or 
passion, is represented. 

The nature of a mood may be more intelligibly explained to the 
scholar, by observing, that if consists in the change which the verb 
undergoes, to signify various intentions of the mind, and various 
modifications and circumstances of action : which explanation, if 
compared with the following account and uses of the different 
moods, will be found to agree with and illustrate them. 

There are five moods of verbs, the indicative, the 
imperative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the 

INFINITIVE. 

The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares 
a thing: as, "He loves, he is loved:" or it asks a 
question : as, " Does he love ?" "Is he loved ?" 

The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, ex- 
horting, entreating, or permitting ; as, "Depart thou; 
mind ye ; let us stay ; go in peace." 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Though this mood derives its name from its intimation of com- 
mand, it is used on occasions of a very opposite nature, even in the 
humblest supplications of an inferior being to one who is infinitely 
his superior : as, " Give us this day our daily bread ; and forgive us 
our trespasses." 

The Potential Mood implies possibility or liberty, 
power, will, or obligation: as, " It may rain; he may 
go or stay, I can ride ; he would walk ; they should 
learn." 

The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a 
condition, motive, wish, supposition, &. ; and is pre- 
ceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and 
attended by another verb : as, " I will respect him, 
though he chide me ;" " Were he good, he would be 
happy;" that is, " if he were good." — See note 8 to 
Rule 19. 

The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general 
and unlimited manner, without any distinction of num- 
ber or person; as, "to act, to speak, to be feared." 

The participle is a certain form of the verb, and 
derives its name from its participating, not only of the 
properties of a verb, but also of those of an adjective : 
as, "I am desirous of knowing him ;" '''admired and 
applauded, he became vain ;" " Having finished his 
work, he submitted it," &c. 

There are three participles, the Present or Active, 
the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect : as, 
"loving, loved, having loved." — Seep. 7S. 

Agreeably to the general practice of grammarians, we have repre- 
sented the present participle, as active ; and the past, as passive : 
but they are not uniformly so : the present is sometimes passive ; 
and the past is frequently active. Thus, " The youth was consuming 
by a slow malady ;" " The Indian was burning by the cruelty of his 
enemies ;" appear to be instances of the present participle being 
used passively. " He has instructed me ;" " I have gratefully repaid 
his kindness ;" are examples of the past participle being applied in 
an active sense. We may also observe, that the present participle 
is sometimes associated with the past and future tenses of the verb ; 
and the past participle connected with the present and future tenses. 
The most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians make 
between the participles, is, that the one points to the continuation 
of the action, passion, or state, denoted by the verb ; and the other, 
to the completion of it. Thus, the present participle signifies im- 
perfect action, or action begun and not ended ; as, " I am writing a 



ETYMOLOGY, f»5 

letter." The past participle signifies action perfected, or finished : 
as, " I have written a letter ;" " The letter is written"* 

The participle is distinguished from the adjective, by the former's 
expressing the idea of time, and the latter's denoting only a quality, 
The phrases, "loving to give as well as to receive," "moving in 
haste," "heated with liquor," contain participles giving the idea of 
time ; but the epithets contained in the expressions," a loving child ;" 
" a moving spectacle," " a heated imagination," mark simply the 
qualities referred to, without any regard to time ; and may properly 
be called participial adjectives. 

Participles not only convey the notion of time ; but they also 
signify actions, and govern the cases of nouns and pronouns, in the 
same manner as verbs do ; and therefore should be comprehended 
in the general name of verbs. That they are mere modes of the 
verb, is manifest, if our definition of a verb be admitted : for they 
signify being, doing, or suffering, with the designation of time 
superadded. But if the essence of the verb be made to consist in 
affirmation or assertion, not only the participle will be excluded 
from its place in the verb, but the infinitive itself also ; which certain 
ancient grammarians of great authority held to be alone the genuine 
verb, simple and unconnected with persons and circumstances. 

The following phrases, even when considered in themselves, 
show that participles include the idea of time : " The letter being 
written, or having been written;" "Charles being writing, having 
written, or having been writing." But when arranged in an entire 
sentence, which they must be to make a complete sense, they show 
it still more evidently : as, " Charles having written the letter, sealed 
and despatched it." The participle does indeed associate with 
different tenses of the verb: as, "I am writing," "I was writing," 
" I shall be writing :" but this forms no just objection to its denoting 
time. If the time of it is often relative time, this circumstance, 
far from disproving, supports our position. f See observations under 
Rule 13 of Syntax. 

Participles sometimes perforin the office of substantives, and are 
used as such; as in the following instances : "The beginning ;" "a 
good understanding ;" " excellent writing ;" "The chancellor's being 
attached to the king secured his crown:" "The general's having 
failed in this enterprise occasioned his disgrace;" "John's having 
been writing a long time had wearied him." 

That the words in italics of the three latter examples, perform 
the office of substantives, and may be considered as such, will be 
evident, if we reflect, that the first of them has exactly the same 
meaning and construction as, " The chancellor's attachment to the 
kino; secured his crown ;" and that the other examples will bear a 
similar construction. The words, being attached, govern the word 

* When this participle is joined to the verb to have, it is called perfect , when 
it is joined to the verb to be, or understood with it, it is denominated passive. 

t From the very nature of time, an action may be present now, it may kavt 
teen present formerly, or it may be present at some future period — yet who evei 
supposed, that the present of the indicative denotes no time ? 

Encyclopedia Britann ka. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

chancellor's in the possessive case, in the one instance, as clearly as 
attachment governs it in that case, in the other : and it is only sub- 
stantives, or words and phrases which operate as substantives, that 
govern the genitive or possessive case. 

The following sentence is not precisely the same as the above, 
either in sense or construction, though, except the genitive case, 
the words are the same; "The chancellor, being attached to the 
king, secured his crown." In the former, the words, being attached, 
form the nominative case to the verb, and are stated as the cause of 
the effect ; in the latter, they are not the nominative case, and make 
only a circumstance to chancellory which is the proper nominative. 
It may not be improper to add another form of the sentence, by 
which the learner may better understand the peculiar nature and 
form of each of these modes of expression: "The chancellor being 
attached to the king, his crown was secured." This constitutes 
what is properly called, the Case Absolute. 

SECTION IV. 
Remarks on the Potential Mood. 

That the Potential Mood should be separated from the subjunctive, 
is evident, from the intricacy and confusion which are produced by 
their being blended together, and from the distinct nature of the two 
moods ; the former of which may be expressed without any condi- 
tion, supposition, &c, as will appear from the following instances : 
"They might have done better;" "We may always act uprightly ;" 
" He was generous, and would not take revenge ;" " We should re- 
sist the allurements of vice ;" "I could formerly indulge myself in 
things, of which I cannot now think but with pain." 

Some grammarians have supposed that the Potential Mood, as 
distinguished above from the Subjunctive, coincides with the Indi- 
cative. But as the latter " simply indicates or declares a thing," 
it is manifest that the former, which modifies the declaration, and 
introduces an idea materially distinct from it, must be considerably 
different. "I can walk," "I should walk," appear to be so essen- 
tially distinct from the simplicity of, "I walk," "I walked," as to 
warrant a correspondent distinction of moods. The Imperative and 
Infinitive Moods, which are allowed to retain their rank, do not ap- 
pear to contain such strong marks of discrimination from the Indi- 
cative, as are found in the Potential Mood. 

There are other writers on this subject, who exclude the Potential 
Mood from their division, because it is formed, not by varying the 
principal verb, but by means of the auxiliary verbs may, can, might, 
could, would, &c: but if we recollect, that moods are used "to sig- 
nify various intentions of the mind, and various modifications and 
circumstances of action," we shall perceive that those auxiliaries, 
far from interfering with this design, do, in the clearest manner, 
support and exemplify it. On the reason alleged by these writers, 
the greater part 01 the Indicative Mood must also be excluded; as 
but a small part of it is conjugated without auxiliaries. The Sub- 
junctive too, will fare no better; since it so nearly resembles the 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

indicative, and is formed by means of conjunctions, expressed or 
understood, which do not more effectually show the varied intentions 
of the mind, than the auxiliaries do which are used to form the 
Potential Mood. 

Some writers have given our moods a much greater extent than 
we have assigned to them. They assert that the English language 
may be said, without any great impropriety, to have as many moods 
as it has auxiliary verbs; and they allege, in support of their opinion, 
that the compound expression which they help to form, point out 
those various dispositions and actions, which, in other languages, 
are expressed by moods. This would be to multiply the moods 
without advantage. It is, however, certain, that the conjugation or 
variation of verbs, in the English language, is effected, almost en- 
tirely, by the means of auxiliaries. We must, therefore, accommo- 
date ourselves to this circumstance ; and do that by their assistance, 
which has been done in the learned languages, (a few instances to 
the contrary excepted), in another manner, namely, by varying the 
form of the verb itself. At the same time, it is necessary to set 
proper bounds to this business, so as not to occasion obscurity and 
perplexity, when we mean to be simple and perspicuous. Instead, 
therefore, of making a separate mood for every auxiliary verb, and 
introducing moods Interrogative, Optative, Promissive, Hortative, 
Precative, &c. we have exhibited such only as are obviously dis- 
tinct; and which, whilst they are calculated to unfold and display 
the subject intelligibly to the learner, seem to be sufficient, and not 
more than sufficient, to answer all the purposes for which moods 
were introduced. 

From grammarians who form their ideas, and make their decisions, 
respecting this part of English Grammar, on the principles and con- 
struction of languages, which in these points, do not suit the pecu- 
liar nature of our own, but differ considerably from it, we may 
naturally expect grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous 
nor perfectly consistent, and which will tend more to perplex than 
inform the learner. See pages 60, 61. 73 —75. 77 — 79. 137 — 
140. 

SECTION V. 

Of the Tenses. 

Tense, being the distinction of time, might seem to 
admit only of the present, past, and future ; but to 
mark it more accurately, it is made to consist of six 
variations, viz. the present, the imperfect, the per- 
fect, the pluperfect, and the first and second future 
tenses. 

The Present Tense represents an action or event, 
as passing at the time in which it is mentioned : as, 
" I rule ; I am ruled ; I think ; I fear." 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The present hense likewise expresses a character, quality, &c 
at present existing: as, "He is an able man;" "she is an amiable 
woman." It is also used in speaking of actions continued, with 
occasional intermissions, to the present time : as, " He frequently 
rides ;" " He walks out every morning;" "He goes into the country 
every summer." We sometimes apply this tense even to persons 
long since dead* as, "Seneca reasons and moralizes well;" "Job 
speaks feelingly of his afflictions." 

The present tense, preceded by the words, when, before, after, as 
soon as, &c. is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a 
future action : as, " When he arrives he will hear the news ;" " He 
will hear the news before he arrives, or as soon as he arrives, or, at 
farthest, soon after he arrives;" "The more she improves, the more 
amiable she will be." 

In animated historical narrations, this tense is sometimes substi- 
tuted for the imperfect tense : as, "He enters the territory of the 
Eeaceable inhabitants ; he fights and conquers, takes an immense 
ooty, which he divides amongst his soldiers, and returns home to 
enjoy an empty triumph." 

The Imperfect Tense represents the action or event, 
either as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished 
at a certain time past: as, " I loved her for her mo- 
desty and virtue;" "They were travelling post when he 
met them." 

The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, 
but also conveys an allusion to the present time : as, 
44 I have finished my letter ;" "I have seen the person 
that was recommended to me." 

In the former example, it is signified that the finishing of the 
letter, though past, w r as at a period immediately, or very nearly, 
preceding the present time. In the latter instance, it is uncertain 
whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or 
short time before. The meaning is, "I have seen him some time 
in the course of a period which includes, or comes to, the present 
time." When the particular time of any occurrence is specified, 
as prior to the present time, this tense is not used : for it would be 
improper to say, "I have seen him yesterday ;" or, "I have finished 
my work last week." In these cases the imperfect is necessary : 
as, "I saw him yesterday;" "I finished my work last week." But 
when we speak indefinitely of any thing past, as happening or not 
happening in the day, year, or age, in which we mention it, the 
perfect must be employed: as, " I have been there this morning;" 
"I have travelled much this year :" " We have escaped many dangers 
through life." In referring, however, to such a division of the day 
as is past before the time of our speaking, we use the imperfect . as, 
"They came home early this morning;" "He was with them at 
three o'clock this afternoon." 

The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote a tiling 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

that is past ; but the former denotes it in such a manner, that there 
is still actually remaining some part of the time to slide away 
wherein we declare. the thing has been done ; whereas the imperfect 
denotes the thing or action past, in such a manner, that nothing re- 
mains of that time in which it was done. If we speak of the present 
century, we say, "Philosophers have made great discoveries in the 
present century: 55 but if we speak of the last century, we say, 
" Philosophers made great discoveries in the last century. 55 " He 
has been much afflicted this year; 55 "I have this week read the 
king's proclamation; 55 " 1 have heard great news this morning : 55 in 
these instances, " He has been," "I have read" and "heard" denote 
things that are past ; but they occurred in this year, in this week, 
and to-day ; and still there remains a part of this year, week, and 
day, whereof I speak. 

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action 
is connected with the present time, by the actual existence, either 
of the author, or of the work, though it may have been performed 
many centuries ago; but if neither the author nor the work now 
remains, it cannot be used. We may say, K Cicero has written ora- 
tion.? y 55 but w r e cannot say, Cicero has written poems ; 55 because the 
orations are in being, but the poems are lost. Speaking of priests 
in general, we may say, "They have in all ages claimed great pow- 
ers ; 55 because the general order of the priesthood still exists : but if 
we speak of the Druids, as any particular order of priests, which 
does not now exist, we cannot use this tense. We cannot say 
" The Druid priests have claimed great powers ; 55 but must say, 
"The Druid priests claimed great powers; 55 because that order is 
now totally extinct. See Pickbourn on the English Verb. 

The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing, not only 
as past, but also as prior to some other point of time 
specified in the sentence : as, " I had finished my letter 
before he arrived." 

The First Future Tense represents the action as yet 
to come, either with or without respect to the precise 
time : as, " The sun will rise to-morrow ;" " I shall 
see them again." 

The Second Future intimates that the action will be 
fully accomplished, at or before the time of another 
future action or event : as, " I shall have dined at one 
o'clock;" "The two houses will have finished their 
business, when the king comes to prorogue them."* 

It is to be observed, that in the subjunctive mood, the event being 
spoken of under a condition or supposition, or in the form of a wish, 
and therefore as doubtful and contingent, the verb itself in the pre- 
sent, and the auxiliary both of the present and past imperfect times, 
often carry with them somewhat of a future sense : as, " If he come 

* See an account of the simple and compound tenses, at page 72. 



60 ENGLISH GFAJVIMAR 

to-morrow, I may speak to him ," " If he should, or would come 
to-morrow, I might, would, could, or si ould speak to him." Observe 
also, that the auxiliary should and would, in the imperfect times, are' 
used to express the present and future as well as the past : as, " It 
is my desire, that he should, or would, come now, or to-morrow 5" 
as well as, "It was my desire, that he should or would come yester- 
day." So that in this mood the precise time of the verb is very 
much determined by the nature and drift of the sentence. 

The present, past, and future tenses, may be used either definitely 
or indefinitely, both with respect to time and action. When they 
denote customs or habits, and. not individual acts, they are applied 
indefinitely : as, " Virtue promotes happiness ;" " The old Romans 
governed by benefits more than by fear ;" " I shall hereafter employ 
my time more usefully." In these examples, the words, promotes, 
governed, and shall employ, are used indefinitely, both in regard to 
action and time ; for they are not confined to individual actions, nor 
to any precise points of present, past, or future time. When they 
are applied to signify particular actions, and to ascertain the precise 
points of time to which they are confined, they are used definitely ; 
as in the following instances. "My brother is writing ;" " He built 
the house last summer, bat did not inhabit it till yesterday." He 
will write another letter to-morrow." 

The different tenses also represent an action as complete or perfect, 
or as incomplete or imperfect. In the phrases, "I am writing," "I 
was writing," "I shall be writing," imperfect, unfinished actions 
are signified. But the following examples, "I wrote," "I have 
written," "I had written," "I shall have written," all denote com- 
plete perfect action. 

From the preceding representation of the different tenses, it ap- 
pears, that each of them has its distinct and peculiar province ; and 
that though some of them may sometimes be used promiscuously, 
or substituted one for another, in cases where great accuracy is not 
required, yet there is a real and essential difference in their mean- 
ing. — It is also evident, that the English language contains the six 
tenses which we have enumerated. Grammarians who limit the 
number to two, or at most to three, namely, the present, the imper- 
fect, and the future, do not reflect that the English verb is mostly 
composed of principal and auxiliary ; and that these several parts 
constitute one verb. Either the English language has no regular 
future tense, or its future is composed of the auxiliary and the prin- 
cipal verb. If the latter be admitted, then the auxiliary and principal 
united, constitute a tense, in one instance ; and, from reason and 
analogy, may doubtless do so, in others, in which minuter divisions 
of time are necessary, or useful. What reason can be assigned for 
not considering this case as other cases, in which a whole is regarded 
as composed of several parts, or of principal and adjuncts ? There 
is nothing heterogeneous in the parts : and precedent, analogy, 
utility, and even necessity, authorize the union. 

In support of this opinion, we have the authority of eminent 
grammarians ; in particular, that of Dr. Beattie. " Some writers," 
says the doctor, " will not allow any thing to be a tense, but what 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

in one inflected word, expresses an affirmation with time ; for that 
those parts of the verb are not properly called tenses, which assume 
that appearance, by means of auxiliary words. At this rate, we 
should have, in English, two tenses only, the present and the past 
in the active verb, and in the passive no tenses at all. But this is 
a needless nicety ; and, if adopted, would introduce confusion into 
the grammatical art. If amaveram be a tense, why should not 
amatus fueram? If / heard be a tense, I did hear, I have heard, and 
/ shall hear, must be equally entitled to that appellation. " 

The proper form of a tense, in the Greek and Latin tongues, is 
certainly that which it has in the grammars of those languages. But 
in the Greek and Latin grammars, we uniformly find, that some of 
the tenses are formed by variations of the principal verb ; and others, 
by the addition of a helping verb. It is, therefore, indisputable, 
tnat the principal verb, or rather its participle, and an auxiliary, 
constitute a regular tense in the Greek and Latin languages. This 
point being established, we may, doubtless, apply it to English 
verbs ; and extend the principle as far as convenience, and the idiom 
of our language require. 

If it should be said, that, on the same ground that a participle 
and auxiliary are allowed to form a tense, and the verb is to be con- 
jugated accordingly, the English, noun and pronoun ought to be 
declined at large, with articles and prepositions; we must object to 
the inference. Such a mode of declension is not adapted to our 
language. This we think has been already proved.* It is also 
confessedly inapplicable to the learned languages. Where then is 
the grammatical inconsistency, or the want of conformity to the 
principles of analogy, in making some tenses of the English verb to 
consist of principal and auxiliary, and the cases of English nouns, 
chiefly in their termination? "The argument from analogy, instead 
of militating against us, appears to confirm and establish our position. 
See pages 56—57,-73—74, 77—79,-138—139. 
^ We shall close these remarks on the tenses, with a few observa- 
tions extracted from the Encyclopedia Britannica. They are 
worth the student's attention, as a part of them applies, not only to 
our views of the tenses, but to many other parts of the work. — 
"Harris (by way of hypothesis) has enumerated no fewer than 
twelve tenses. Of this enumeration we can by no means approve : 
for, without entering into a minute examination of it, nothing can 
be more obvious, than that his inceptive present, "I am going to 
write," is a future tense ; and his completive present, " I have written," 
a past tense. But, as was before observed of the classification of 
words, we cannot help being of opinion, that, to take the tenses as 
they are commonly received, and endeavour to ascertain their nature 
and their differences, is a much more useful exercise, as well as more 
proper for a work of this kind, than to raise, as might easily be raised, 
new theories on the subject. 'ff 

* See page 39. 

f The following criticism affords an additional support to the author's system 
Of the Tenses, &c. > 

"Under the head of Etymology, the author of this grammar judiciously ad- 

6 

l 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SECTION VI. 

The Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verbs to have and to be. 

The Conjugation of a verb, is the regular combina 
tion and arrangement of its severa. numbers, persons, 
moods, and tenses. 

The Conjugation of an active verb is styled the ac- 
tive voice ; and that of a passive verb, the passive 
voice. 

The auxiliary and active verb to have, is conjuga- 
ted in the following manner. 





TO HAVE. 




Indicative Mood. 




Present Tense. 


Singular. 

1. Pers. I have. 

2. Pers. Thou hast. 

3. Pers. He, she, or 
hath or has. 


Plural. 

1. We have. 

2. Ye or you have. 

l{ I 3. They have. 


Singular. 

1. I had. 

2. Thou hadst. 

3. He, &c. had. 


Imperfect Tense.* 
Plural. 

1. We had. 

2. Ye or you had 

3. They had 


Singular. 

1. I have had. 

2. Thou hast had. 

3. He has had. 


Perfect Tense.* 
Plural. 

1. We have had. 

2. Ye or you have had. 

3. They have had. 


Singular. 

1. I had had. 

2. Thou hadst had. 

3. He had had. 


Pluperfect Tense * 
Plural. 

1. We had had. 

2. Ye or you had had 

3. They had had. 



heres to the natural simplicity of the English language, without embarrassing the 
learner with distinctions peculiar to the Latin tongue. The difficult subject of 
the Tenses, is clearly explained ; and with less encumbrance of technical 
phraseology, than in most other grammars." — Analytical Review. 

* The terms which we have adopted, to designate the three past tenses, may 
not be exactly significant of their nature and distinctions. But as they are used 
by grammarians in general and have an established authority; and, especially, 
as the meaning attached to each of them, and their different significations, have 
been carefully explained ; we presume that no solid objection can be made to the 
use of terms so generally approved, and so explicitly defined. See pages 62 and 
63. We are supported in theso sentiments, by the authority of Dr. Johnson. 
See the first note in his "Grammar of the English Tongue," prefixed to his 
dictionary. If, however, any teachers should think it warrantable to change 
the established names, they cannot perhaps find any more appropriate, than the 
terms first preterit, second preterit, and third preterit.- -See the Octavo Grammar. 



EHMOLOGY. 63 

First Future Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have. 1. We shall or will have. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have. 2. Ye or you shall or will have. 

3. He shall or will have. 3. They shall or will have. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singulai. Plural. 

1. I shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 

2. Thou wilt have had. 2. Ye or you will have had. 

3. He will have had. 3. They will have had 

Imperative Mood. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Let rue have. ' L. Let us have. 

2. Have, or have thou, or do 2. Have, or have ye, or do ye of 

thou have. you have. 

3. Let him have. 3. Let them have.* 

The imperative mood is not strictly entitled to three persons. The 
command is always addressed to the second person, not to the first 
or third. For when we say, " Let me have," " Let him, or let them 
have/' the meaning and construction are, do thou, or do ye, let me, 
him, or them have. In philosophical strictness, both number and 
person might be entirely excluded from every verb. They are, in 
fact, the properties of substantives, not a part of the essence of a 
verb. Even the name of the imperative mood, does not always 
correspond to its nature: for it sometimes petitions as well as com- 
mands. But, with respect to all these points, the practice of our 
grammarians is so uniformly fixed, and so analogous to the lan- 
guages, ancient and modern, which our youth have to study, that it 
would be an unwarrantable degree of innovation, to deviate from 
the established terms and arrangements. See the advertisement at 
the end of the Introduction, page 6; and the quotation from the 
Encyclopaedia Eritannica, page. 61. 

Potential Mood. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have. 1. We may or can have. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have. 2. Ye or you may or can have. 
3 He may or can have. 3. They may or can have. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, w T ould, or 

should have. should have. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 
wouldst, or shouldst have. or should have. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
or should have. should have. 

* If such sentences should be rigorously examined, the Imperative will ap 
pear to consist merely in the word let. See Parsing, p. 151. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have had. 1. We may or can have had. 

2. Thou mayest or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 
had. had. 

3. He may or can have had. 3. They may or can have had. 

Pluperfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 
should have had. should have had. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, % Ye . M could w 
wouldst, or shouldst have m gh J d hav | ha ' d> 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
or should have had. should have had.* 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have. 1. If we have. 

2. If thou have.f 2. If ye or you have. 

3. If he have.t 3. If they have. 

The remaining tenses of the subjunctive mood, are, in every 
respect, similar to the correspondent tenses of the indicative moods ;| 
with the addition to the verb, of a conjunction, expressed or implied, 
denoting a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. It will be 
proper to direct the learner to repeat all the tenses of this mood, 
with a conjunction prefixed to each of them. See, on this subject, 
the observations at page 74 ; and the notes on the nineteenth rule 
of syntax. 

Infinitive Mood, 
present. To have. perfect. To have had 

Participles. 
present or active, Having. 
perfect, Had. 

compound perfect, Having had. 

* Shall and will, when they denote inclination, resolution, promise, may be 
considered, as well as their relations should and would, as belonging to the po- 
tential mood. But as they generally signify futurity, they have been appro- 
priated, as helping verbs, to the formation of the future tenses of the indicative 
and subjunctive moods. 

f Grammarians, in general, conjugate the present of the auxiliary, in this 
manner. But we presume that this is the form of the verb considered as a 
'principal, not as an auxiliary verb. See page 137. Note 5 

\ Except that the second and third persons, singular and plural, of the second 
future tense, require the auxiliary shalt, shall, instead of unit, will. Thus, "He 
will have completed the work by midsummer," is the indicative form, but the 
subjunctive is, "If he shall have completed the work by midsummer. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

As the subjunctive mood, in English, has no variation, in the fonr 
of the verb, from the indicative, (except in the present tense, am 
the second future tense, of verbs generally, and the present and im 
perfect tenses of the verb to be,) it would be superfluous to conjugate 
st in this work, through every tense. But all the other moods and 
tenses of the verbs, both in the active and passive voices, are con- 
jugated at large, that the learners may have no doubts or misappre- 
hensions respecting their particular forms. They to whom the sub- 
ject of grammar is entirely new. and young persons especially, are 
much more readily and effectually instructed, by seeing the parts 
of a subject so essential as the verb, unfolded and spread before 
them, in all their varieties, than by being generally and cursorily 
informed of the manner in which they may be exhibited. The time 
employed by the scholars, in consequence of this display of the 
verbs, is of small moment, compared with the advantages which 
they will probably derive from the plan. 

It may not, however, be generally proper for young persons be- 
ginning the study of grammar, to commit to memory all the tenses 
of the verbs. If the simple tenses, namely, the present and the im- 
perfect, together with the first future tense, should, in the first in- 
stance, be committed to mexnory, and the rest carefully perused and 
explained, the business will not be tedious to the scholars, and their 
progress will be rendered more obvious and pleasing. The general ' 
view of the subject, thus acquired and impressed; may afterward 
be extended with ease and advantage. 

It appears to be proper, for the information of the learners, to 
make a few observations in this place, on some of the tenses, &c 
The first is, that, in the potential mood, some grammarians confound 
the present with the imperfect tense ; and the perfect with the plu- 
perfect. But that they are really distinct, and have an appropriate 
reference to time, correspondent to the definitions of those tenses, 
will appear from a few examples : " I wished him to stay, but he 
would not;" "I could not accomplish the business in time;" " It 
was my direction that he should submit;" " He was ill, but I thought 
he might live;''' " I may have missunderstood him;" "He cannot have 
deceived me;" "He might have finished the work sooner, but he 
could not have done it better." It must, however, be admitted, that, 
on some occasions, the auxiliaries might, could, would, and should, 
refer also to present and to future time. See page 59. 

The next remark is, that the auxiliary will, in the first person 
singular and plural of the second future tense ; and the auxiliary 
shall, in the second and third persons of that tense, in the indicative 
mood, appear to be incorrectly applied. The impropriety of such 
associations may be inferred from a few examples : " I will have 
had previous notice, whenever the event happens;" "Thou shalt 
have served thy apprenticeship before the end of the year ;" "He 
shall have completed his business when the messenger arrives." 
" I shall have had ; thou wilt have served ; he will have completed," 
&c. would have been correct and applicable. The peculiar import 
of these auxiliaries, as explained in page 70, under section 7, seems 
to account for their impropriety in the applications just mentioned 
6* 



66 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






Some writers on grammar object to the propriety of admitting the 
second future, in both the indicative and subjunctive moods : but 
tnat this tense is applicable to both moods, will be manifest from 
the following examples; "John will have earned his wages the 
next new-year's day," is a simple declaration, and therefore in the 
indicative mood : " If he shall have finished his work when the bell 
rings, he will be entitled to the reward," is conditional and contin- 
gent, and is therefore in the subjunctive mood. 

We shall conclude these detached observations, with one remark 
which may be useful to the young scholar, namely, that as the in- 
dicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, by the expression 
of a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. being superadded to 
it ; so the potential mood may, in like manner, be turned into the 
subjunctive; as will be seen in the following examples ; " If I could 
deceive him, I should abbor it;" "Though he should increase in 
wealth, he would not be charitable;" " Even in prosperity he would 
gain no esteem, unless he should conduct himself better." 

The auxiliary and neuter verb To be, is conjugated 
as follows 

TO BE. 



Singular. 
1. 1 am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He, she* or it is. 



Singular. 

1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 



Singular. 
1. 1 have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 

3. He hath or has been 



Singular. 

1. I had been. 

2. Thou hadst been 

3. He had been. 



Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Plural. 

1. We are. 

2. Ye or you are. 

3. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We were. 

2. Ye or you were. 
* 3. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We have been. 

2. Ye or you have been. 

3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We had been. 

2. Ye or you had been. 

3. They had been. 

First Future Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I shall or will be. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be. 
8. He shall or will be. 



Plural. 

1. We shall or will be. 

2. Ye or you shall or will be. 

3. They shall or will be. 






ETYMOLOGY. 67 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. Ye or you will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me be. 1. Let us be. 

2. Be thou or do thou be. 2. Be ye or you, or do ye be. 

3. Let him be. 3. Let them be. 

Potential Mood 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can be. I. We may or can be. 

2. Thou mayst or canst be. 2. Ye or you may or can be. 

3. He may or can be. '3. They may or can be. 

Imperfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should be. should be. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 
wouldst, or shouldst be. or should be. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
or should be. should be. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 may or can have been. 1. We may or can have been. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 
been. been. 

3. He may or can have been. 3. They may or can have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 
should have been. should have been. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 
wouldst, or shouldst have or should have been. 

been. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
or should have been. should have been. 

Supjtjnctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If ye or you be, 

3. If he be, 3. If they be. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1- If! were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert. 2. If ye or you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

The remaining tenses of this mood are, in general, similar to the 
correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. See pages 64, 72, 73, 
and the notes under the nineteenth rule of Syntax. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present Tense. To be. Perfect. To have been. 

Participles. 

Present. Being. Perfect. Been. 

Compound Perfect. Having been. 

SECTION VII. 

The Auxiliary Verbs conjugated in their simple form ; with observa- 
tions on their peculiar nature and force. 

The learner will perceive that the preceding auxiliary verbs, to 
have and to be, could not be conjugated through all the moods and 
tenses, without the help of other auxiliary verbs ; namely, may, can, 
will, shall, and their variations. That auxiliary verbs, in their simple 
state, and unassisted by others, are of a very limited extent ; and 
that they are chiefly useful, in the aid which they afford in conju- 
gating the principal verbs ; will clearly appear to the scholar, by a 
distinct conjugation of each of them, uncombined with any other. 
They are exhibited for his inspection; not to be committed to 
memory. 

TO HAVE, 







Present Tense. 




Sing. 1. 
Plur. 1. 


I have. 
We have. 


2. Thou hast. 

2. Ye or you have. 


3. He hath or has. 
3. They have. 


Sing. 1. 
Plur. 1. 


I had. 
We had. 


Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou hadst. 
2. Ye or you had. 


3. He had. 
3. They had. 


Perfect 


I have had, 
Present 


&c. Pluperfect. I had had, &c. 
Participles. 
Having. Perfect. Had. 




' 


TO BE. 








Present Tense. 




Sing. 1. 
Plur. 1. 


I am. 

We are. 


2. Thou art. 

2. Ye or you are. 


3. He is. 
3. They are. 


Shig. 1 
Plur. 1 


. I was. 

. I We were. 


Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou wast. 
2. Ye or you were. 


3. He was. 
3. They were. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Participles. 
Present. Being. Perfect. Been. 




SHALL. 






Present Tense. 




Sing. 1. 1 shall.* 
Plur. 1. We shall. 


2. Thou shalt. 

2. Ye or you shall. 


3. He shall. 
3. They shall. 


Sing. 1. 1 should. 
Plur. 1. We should. 


Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou shouldst. 
2. Ye or you should. 

WILL. 

Present Tense. 


3. He should. 
3. They should. 


Sing. 1. 1 will. 
Plur. 1. We will. 


2. Thou wilt. 
2. Ye or you will. 


3. He will. 
3. They will. 


Sing. 1. 1 would. 
Plur. 1. We would. 


Imperfect Tense 
2. Thou wouldst. 
2. Ye or you would. 

MAY. 

Present Tense 


3. He would. 
3. They would. 


Sing. 1. I may. 
Plur. 1. We may. 


2. Thou mayst. 
2. Ye or you may. 


3. He may 
3. They may 


Sing. 1. 1 might. 
Plur. 1. 1 We might 


Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou mightst. 
2. Ye or you might. 

CAN. 
Present Tense. 


3. He might. 
3. They might. 


Sing. 1. 1 can. 
Plur. 1. We can. 


2. Thou canst. 
2. Ye or you can. 


3. He can. 
3. They can. 


Sing. 1. 1 could. 
Plur. 1. We could. 


Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou couldst. 
2. Ye or you could. 

TO DO. 

Present Tense. 


3. He could. 
3. They could. 


5i?ig-. 1. 1 do. 
Plur. 1. We do. 


2. Thou dost. 
2. Ye or you do. 


3. He doth or does. 
3. They do. 


Sing. 1. I did. 
Plur. 1. We did. 

Present. 


Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou didst. 3. He did. 
2. Ye or you did. 3. They did. 

Participles. 
Doing. Perfect. Done. 



* Shall is here properly used in the present tense, having the same analogy 
to should that can has to could, may to might, and will to vjould. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The verbs have, be, will, and do, when they are unconnected witb 
a principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but 
principal verbs: as, "We have enough;" "I am grateful;" "He 
wills it to be so ;" " They do as they please." In this view, they 
also have their auxiliaries: as, "I shall have enough;" "I will be 
grateful," &c. 

The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the 
following account of them. 

Do and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with greater 
energy and positiveness : as, " I do speak truth;" "I did respect 
him ;" " Here am I, for thou didst call me." They are of great use 
in negative sentences : as, " I do not fear ;" " I did not write." They 
are almost universally employed in asking questions: as, "Does he 
learn?" "Did he not write?" They sometimes also supply the 
place of another verb, and make the repetition of it in the same, or 
a subsequent sentence, unnecessary : as, "You attend not to your 
studies as he does;" (i. e. as he attends, &c.) "I shall come, if I 
can; but if I do not, please to excuse me;" (i. e. if I come not.) 

Let not only expresses permission, but entreating,, exhorting, 
commanding: as, "Let us know the truth ;" "Let me die the death 
of the righteous ;" "Lst not thy heart be too much elated with suc- 
cess;" "Let thy inclination submit to thy duty." 

May and might express the possibility or liberty of doing a thing; 
can and could, the power : as, "It may rain;" "I may write or 
read ;" " He might have improved more than he has ;" " He can 
write much better than he could last year." 

Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes necessity; 
as, " We must speak the truth whenever we do speak, and we must 
not prevaricate." 

Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution 
and promising; in the second and third person, only foretells: as, 
"I will reward the good, and will punish the wicked;" "We will 
remember benefits, and be greateful ;" " Thou wilt, or he will, re- 
pent of that folly;" "You or they will have a pleasant walk." 

Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells ; in the 
second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens : as, 
"I shall go abroad;" "We shall dine at home;" "Thou shalt, or 
you shall, inherit the land :" " Ye shall do justice, and love mercy ;" 
" They shall account for their misconduct." The following passage 
is not translated according to the distinct and proper meanings of 
the words shall and will : " Surely goodness and mercy shall follow 
me all the days of my life ; and I will dwell in the house of the 
Lord for ever;" it ought to be, " Will follow me," and "I shall 
dwell." The foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the Thames, and 
cried out; "I will be drowned, nobody shall help me;" made a sad 
misapplication of these auxiliaries. 

These observations respecting the import of the verbs will and 
shall, must be understood of explicative sentences ; for when the 
sentence is interrogative, just the reverse, for the most part, takes 
place : thus, " I shall go ; you will go ;" express event only : but, 
"will you go?" imports intention; and. "shall I go?" refers to the 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

wnl of another. But, " He shall go," and " shall he go ?" both imply 
will ; expressing or referring to a command. 

When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the meaning of 
these auxiliaries likewise undergoes some alteration ; as the learners 
will readily perceive by a few examples : " He shall proceed," "If 
he shall proceed;" "You shall consent," "If you shall consent." 
These auxiliaries are sometimes interchanged, in the indicative and 
subjunctive moods, to convey the same meaning of the auxiliary: 
as, "He will not return," "If he shall not return;" "He shall not 
return," "If he will not return." 

Would, primarily denotes inclination of will ; and should, obliga- 
tion : but they both vary their import, and are often used to express 
simple event. 

SECTION VIII. 

The Conjugation of Regular Verbs. 

ACTIVE. 

Verbs Active are called Regular, when they form 
their imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and their 
perfect participle, by adding to the verb ed, or d only 
when the verb ends in e: as. 

Present. Imperfect. Perf. Participle. 

I favour. I favoured. Favoured. 

I love. I loved. Loved. 

A Regular Active Verb is conjugated in the follow* 
ing manner. 

TO LOVE. 
Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I love.* 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. Ye or you love. 

^loves 8 ^' ^ %U ^^ ^ 3 ' The y love * 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved. 1 We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst.. 2. Ye or you loved. 
S. He loved. 3. They loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. Ye or you have loved. 

3. He hath or has loved. 3. They have loved. 

* In .he present and imperfect tenses, we use a different foim of the /erb, 
**hen we mean to express energy and positiveness : as, " I do love ; thou do* 
icve ; he docs love ; 1 did love ; thou didst love ; he did love." 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 





Pluperfect Tense, 


Singular. 


PIuraL 


1. 1 had loved. 


1. We had loved. 


2. Thou hadst loved. 


2. Ye or you had loved. 


8. He had loved. 


3. They had loved. 



First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love. 2. Ye or you shall or will love 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. Ye or you will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 
Those tenses are called simple tenses, which are formed of the 

principal, without an auxiliary verb: as, "I love, I loved." The 
compound tenses are such as cannot be formed without an auxiliary 
verb: as, "I have loved; I had loved; I shall or will love; I may 
love ; I may be loved ; I may have been loved ;" &c* These com- 
pounds are, however, to be considered as only different forms of the 
same verb. 

Imperative mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me love. 1. Let us love. 

2. Love, or love thou, or do 2. Love, or love ye or you, or do 
thou love. ye love. 

8. Let him love. 3. Let them love. 

Potential Mood. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can love. 1. We may or can love. 

2. Thou mayst or canst love. 2. Ye or you may or can love. 

3. He may or can love. 3. They may or can love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could would, or 
should love. should love. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 
wouldst, or shouldst love. or should love. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
or should love. should love. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have loved. 1. We may or can have loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 
loved. loved. 

3. He may or can have loved. 3. They may or can have loved 






ETYMOLQGF 73 



Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 
should have loved. should have loved. 

2 - s^issSudSS. *• Ye rsr s f' r* wou,d ' 

j . ■ or should have loved. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would s or 

or should have loved. should have loved. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. Jf thou love. 2. If ye or you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

The remaining tenses of this mood, are, in general, similar to the 
correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. See page 64, and 
page 73. 

It may he of use to the scholar, to remark, in this place, that 
though only the conjunction if is affixed to the verb, any other con- 
junction proper for the subjunctive mood, may, with equal propriety, 
be occasionally annexed. The instance given is sufficient to ex- 
plain the subject: more would be tedious, and tend to embarrass the 
learner. 

Infinitive Mood.. 
Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 

Participles. 
Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved. 
Compound Perfect. Having loved. 
The active verb may be conjugated differently, by adding its 
present or active participle to the auxiliary verb to be, through all 
its moods and tenses ; as, instead of " I teach, thou teachest, he 
teaches," &c. ; we may say, " I am teaching, thou art teaching, he 
is teaching," &c. : and instead of " I taught," &c. " I was teaching," 
Sec. and so on, through all the variations of the auxiliary. This 
mode of conjugation has, on particular occasions, a peculiar pro- 
priety; and contributes to the harmony and precision of the language. 
These forms of expression are adapted to particular acts, not to 
general habits, or affections of the mind. They are very frequently 
applied to neuter verbs ; as, " I am musing ; he is sleeping."* 

Some grammarians apply, what is called the conjunctive termina- 
tion, to the persons of the principal verb, and to its auxiliaries, 
through all the tenses of the subjunctive mood. But this is certainly 
contrary to the practice of good writers. Johnson applies this ter- 

* As the participle, in this mode of conjugation, performs the office of a verb, 
through all the moods and tenses ; and as it implies the idea of time, and governs 
the objective case of nouns and pronouns, in the same manner as verbs do: is 
it not manifest, that it is a species or form of the verb, and that it cannot be 
properly considered as a distinct part of speech? 
7 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

initiation to the present and perfect tenses only. Lowth restricts it 
entirely to the present tense ; and Priestley confines it to the present 
andimperfect tenses. This difference of opinion amongst gram- 
marians of such eminence, may have contributed to that diversity 
of practice, so observable in the use of the subjunctive mood. Uni- 
formity in this point is highly desirable. It would materially assist 
both teachers and learners; and would constitute a considerable 
improvement in our language. On this subject, we adopt the opinion 
of Dr. Lowth ; and conceive we are fully warranted by his authority, 
and that of the most correct and elegant writers, in limiting the 
conjunctive termination of the principal verb, to the second and 
third person singular of the present tense. 

Grammarians have not only differed in opinion, respecting the 
extent and variations of the subjunctive mood; but a few of tnem 
have even doubted the existence of such a mood in the English 
language. These writers assert, that the verb has no variation from 
the indicative; and that a conjunction added to the verb, gives it no 
title to become a distinct mood; or, at most no better than it would 
have, if any other particle were joined to it. To these observations 
it may be replied; 1st. It is evident, on inspection, that, in the sub- 
junctive mood, the present tense of the principal verbs, the present 
and imperfect tenses of the verb to be, and the second and third 
persons, in both numbers, of the second future tense of all verbs-* 
require a variation from the forms which those tenses have in the 
indicative mood. So much difference in the form of the verb, would 
warrant a correspondent distinction of mood, though the remaining 
parts of the subjunctive were, in all respects, similar to those of the 
indicative In other languages, a principle of this nature has been 
admitted, both in the conjugation of verbs, and the declension of 
nouns. 2d. There appears to be as much propriety, in givin^ a 
conjunction the power of assisting to form the subjunctive mood* as 
there is in allowing the particle to to have an effect in the formation 
°u infinitive mood.f 3d. A conjunction added to the verb 

shows the manner of being, doing, or suffering, which other particles 
cannot show: they do not coalesce with the verb, and modify it as 
conjunctions do. 4th. It may be said, « If contingency constitutes 
the subjunctive mood, then it is the sense of a phrase, and not a 
conjunction, that determines this mood." But a little reflection 
will show, that the contingent sense lies in the meaning and'force 
of the conjunction, expressed or understood. 

This subject may be farther illustrated, by the following obser- 
vations. Moods have a foundation in nature They show what is 
certain; what is possible ; what is conditional; what is commanded. 
Iney express also other conceptions and volitions; all signifying 
the manner of being, doing, or suffering. But as it would tend to 
obscure, rather than elucidate the subject, if the moods were par- 

« l^f e ll i in u il h ^ s been P roved > toat the auxiliary is a constituent part of the 
verb to which it relates : that the principal and its auxiliary form but one verb. 
t conjunctions have an influence on the mood of the following verb. 

Conjunctions have sometimes a government of moods. i*r, ZoutfT 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

ticularly enumerated, grammarians have very properly given them 
such combinations and arrangements, as serve to explain the nature 
of this part of language, and to render the knowledge of it easily 
attainable. 

The grammarians of some languages contain a greater number 
of the moods, than others, and exhibit them in different forms. The 
Greek and Roman tongues denote them, by particular variations in 
the verb itself. This form, however, was the effect of ingenuity 
and improvement: it is not essential to the nature of the subject. 
The moods may be as effectually designated by a plurality of words, 
as by a change in the appearance of a single word; because the 
same ideas are denoted, and the same ends accomplished, by either 
manner of expression. 

On this ground, the moods. of the English verb, as well as the 
tenses, are, with great propriety, formed partly by the principal 
verb itself, and partly by the assistance which that verb derives from 
other words. For further observations, relative to the views and 
sentiments here advanced, see pages 55, 56. 59, 60. 77, 78 — 139 — 
140. 



Verbs Passive are called regular, when they form 
their perfect participle by the addition of d or ed, to 
the verb: as, from the verb "To love," is formed the 
passive, "I am loved, I was loved, I shall be loved, "&c. 

A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect 
participle to the auxiliary to be, through all its cnanges 
of number, person, mood, and tense, in the following 
manner. 

TO BE LOVED. 
Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. Ye or you are loved. 
S. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast lovea. 2. Ye or you were loved. 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 have been lovea. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved 2. Ye or you have been loved. 

3. He hath or has been loved. 3. Thev have been loved. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. Ye or you had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 shall or will be loved. 1. We shall or will be loved. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved. 2. Ye or you shall or will be loved. 

3. He shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been loved. 2. Ye or you will have been loved. 

3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 

Imperative Mood. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me be loved. 1. Let us be loved. 

2. Be thou loved, or do thou 2. Be ye or you loved, or do ye 
be loved. be loved. 

3. Let him be loved. 3. Let them be loved, 

Potential Moon. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 may or can be loved. I. We may or can be loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst be loved. 2. Ye or you may or can be loved. 

3. He may or can be loved. 3. They may or can be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 
should be loved. should be loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 
wouldst, or shouldst be loved. or should be loved. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
or should be loved. should be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 may or can have been 1. We may or can have been 

loved. loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 
been loved. been loved. 

3. He may or can have been 3. They may or can have been 
loved. loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have been loved. should have been loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 
wouldst, or shouldst have or should have been loved, 
been loved. 

3. He intent, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or 
or should have been loved. should have been loved. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If ye or you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wert loved. 2. If ye or you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

The remaining tenses of this mood are, in general, similar to the 
correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. See pages 64, 73, and 
the notes under the nineteenth rule of Syntax. 

Infinitive MdoD. 

Present Tense. Perfect. 

To be loved. To have been loved. 

Participles. 

Present. Being loved. 

Perfect or Passive. Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having been loved. 

When an auxiliary is joined to the participle of the principal 
verb, the auxiliary goes through all the variations of person and 
number, and the participle itself continues invariably the same. 
When there are two or more auxiliaries joined to the participle, 
the first of them only is varied according to person and number. The 
auxiliary must admits of no variation. 

The neuter verb is conjugated like the active ; but as it partakes 
somewhat of the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, 
of the passive form, retaining still the neuter signification : as, "I 
am arrived ;'•' " I was gone ;" "I am grown." The auxiliary verb, 
am, was, in this case, precisely defines the time of the action or 
event, but does not change the nature of it ; the passive form still 
expressing, not properly a passion, but only a state or condition of 
being. 

SECTION IX. 

Observations on Passive Verbs. 

Some writers on grammar assert, that there are no passive verbs 
m the English language, because we have no verbs of this kind with 
a peculiar termination, all of them .being formed by the different 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tenses of the auxiliary to be, joined to the passive participle of the 
verb. This is, however, to mistake the true nature of English 
verb ; and to regulate it, not on the principles of our own tongue, 
but on those of foreign languages. The conjugation, or the varia- 
tion, of the English verb, to answer all the purposes of verbs, is 
accomplished by the means of auxiliaries ; and if it be alleged that 
we have no passive verbs, because we cannot exhibit them without 
having recourse to helping verbs, it may with equal truth be said, 
that we have no perfect, pluperfect, or future tense, in the indicative 
or subjunctive mood; since these, as well as some other parts of the 
verb active, are formed by auxiliaries. 

Even the Greek and Latin passive verbs require an auxiliary to 
conjugate some of their tenses ; namely, the former, in the preterit 
of the optative and subjunctive moods ; and the latter, in the perfect 
and pluperfect of the indicative, the perfect, pluperfect, and future, 
of the subjunctive mood, and the perfect of the infinitive. The 
deponent verbs, in Latin, require also an auxiliary to conjugate 
several of their tenses. This statement abundantly proves that the 
conjugation of a verb in the learned languages does not consist 
solely in varying the form of the original verb. It proves that these 
languages, like our own language, sometimes conjugate with an 
auxiliary, and sometimes without it. There is, indeed, a difference. 
What the learned languages require to be done, in some instances, 
the peculiar genius of our own tongue obliges us to do, in active 
verbs, principally, and in passive ones, universally. In short, the 
variation of the verb, in Greek and Latin, is generally accomplished 
by prefixes, or terminations, added to the verb itself; in English, 
by the addition of auxiliaries. 

The English tongue is, in many respects, materially different from 
the learned languages. It is, therefore, very possible to be mistaken 
ourselves, and to mislead and perplex others, by an undistinguishing 
attachment to the principles and arrangement of the Greek and 
Latin grammarians. Much of the confusion and perplexity, which 
we meet with in the writings of some English grammarians on the 
subject of verbs, moods, and conjugations, has arisen from the mis- 
application of names. We are apt to think, that the old names must 
always be attached to the identical forms and things to which they 
were anciently attached. But if we rectify this mistake, and pro- 
perly adjust the names to the peculiar forms and nature of the things 
in our own language, we shall be clear and consistent in our ideas; 
and, consequently, better able to represent them intelligibly to those 
whom we wish to inform. 

The observations which we have made under this head, and on 
the subject of the moods in another place, will not apply to the 
declension and cases of nouns, so as to require us to adopt names 
and divisions similar to those of the Greek and Latin languages : for 
we should then have more cases than there are prepositions in con- 
nexion with the article and noun : and after all, it would be a useless, 
as well as an unwieldy apparatus ; since every English preposition 
points to, and governs, but one case, namely the objective ; which 
is also true with respect to our governing verbs and participles. But 



ETYMOLOGY. 79 

the conjugation of an English verb in form, through all its moods 
and tenses, by means of auxiliaries, so far from being useless or in- 
tricate, is a beautiful and regular display of it, and indispensably 
of it, and indispensably necessary to the language. 

Some grammarians have alleged, that on the same ground that 
the voices, moods, and tenses, are admitted into the English tongue, 
in the forms for which we have contended, we should also admit the 
dual number, the paulo post future tense, the middle voice, and all 
the moods and tenses, which are to be found in Greek and Latin. 
But thi3 objection, though urged with much reliance on its weight, 
is not well founded. If the arrangement of the moods, tenses, cue. 
which we have adopted, is suited to the idiom of our tongue ; and 
the principle, on which they are adopted, is extended as far as use 
and convenience require ; where is the impropriety, in arresting our 
progress, and fixing our forms at the point of utility? A principle 
may be warrantably adopted and carried to a precise convenient 
extent, without subjecting its supporters to the charge of inconsis- 
tency, for not pursuing if beyond the line of use and propriety. 

Tiie importance of giving the ingenious student clear and just 
ideas of the nature of our verbs, moods, and tenses, will apologize 
for the extent of the Author's remarks on these subjects, both here 
and elsewhere, and for his solicitude to simplify and explain them. 
He thinks it has been proved, that the idiom of our tongue demands 
the arrangement he has given to the English verb; and that, though 
the learned languages, with respect to voices, moods, and tenses, 
are, in general, differently constructed from the English tongue, 
yet, in some respects, they are so similar to it, as to warrant the 
principle which he has adopted. See pages 55, 56. 60, 61. 73, 74. 
139—140. 

SECTION X. 

Of Irregular Verbs. 

Irregular Verbs are those which do not form their 
imperfect tense and their perfect participle, by the 
addition of d or ed to the verb : as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. 

I begin, I began, begun. 

I know, I knew, known. 

Irregular Verbs are of various sorts. 

1. Such as have the present and imperfect tenses, and perfect 
participle the same : as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. 

Cost, cost, cost. 

Put, put, put. 

2. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect participle, the 
same: as, 



80 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. 

Abide, abode, abode. 

Sell, sell, sold. 
3. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect participle dif- 
ferent: as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. 

Arise, arose, arisen. 

Blow, blew, blown. 

Many verbs become irregular by contraction; as, "feed, fed 5 
leave, left -."others by the termination en; as, "fall, fell, fallen:" 
others by the termination ght ; as, " buy, bought ; teach, taught," &c. 

The following list of the irregular verbs will, it is presumed, be 
found both comprehensive and accurate. 

Present. 
Abide, 
Am, 
Arise, 
Awake, 

Bear, to bring forth, 
Bear, to carry. 
Beat, 
Begin, 
Bend, 
Bereave, 
Beseech, 
Bid, 
Bind, 
Bite, 
Bleed. 
Blow, 
Break, 
Breed, 
Bring, 
Build, 
Burst, 
Buy, 
Cast, 
Catch, 
Chide, 
Choose, 

Cleave, to stick or' 
adhere, ] 

Cleave, to split. 
Cling, 
Clothe, 
Come, 
Cost, 
Crow, 
Creep, 
Cut, 



Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Part. 


abode, 


abode. 


was, 


been. 


arose, 


arisen. 


awoke, r. 


awaked. 


bare, 


born. 


bore, 


borne. 


beat, 


beaten, beat. 


began, 


begun. 


bent, 


bent. 


bereft, r. 


bereft, r. 


besought, 


besought. 


bid, bade, 


bidden, bid. 


bound, 


bound. 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


bled, 


bled. 


blew, 


blown. 


broke, 


broken. 


bred, 


bred. 


brought, 


brought. 


built, 


built. 


burst, 


burst. 


bought, 


bought. 


cast, 


cast. 


caught, R. 
chid, 


caught, r. 
chidden, chid. 


chose, 


chosen. 


REGULAR. 




clove, or cleft, 


cleft, cloven. 


clung, 


clung. 


clothed, 


clad. r. 


came, 


come. 


cost, 


cost. 


crew, r. 


crowed- 


crept, 


crept. 


cut, 


cut. 











ETYMOLOGY. 


Present. 


Imperfect. Perf. or Pass. Part. 


Dare, to venture, 


durst, dared. 


Dare, r. to challenge, 




Deal, 


dealt, r. dealt, r. 


Dig, 


dug, r. dug, R. 
did, done. 


Do, 


Draw, 


drew, drawn. 


Drive, 


drove, driven. 


Drink, 


drank, drunk. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, r. dwelt r. 


Eat, 


eat or ate, eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, fed. 


Feel, 


felt, felt. 


Fight, 


fought, fought. 


Find, 


found, found. 


Flee, 


fled, fled. 


Fling, 


flung, flung. 


Fly, 


flew, flown. 


Forget, 


forgot, forgotten, forgot 


Forsake, 


forsook, forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, frozen 


Get, 


got, got.* 


Gild, 


gilt, r gilt, r. 


Gird, 


girt, r. girt, R 


Give, 


gave, given. 


Go, 


went, gone. 


Grave, 


graved, graven, r. 


Grind, 


ground, ground. 


Grow, 


grew, grown, 
had, had. 


Have, 


Hang, 


hung, r. hung, r. 


Hear, 


heard, heard. 


Hew, 


hewed, hewn, r 


Hide, 


hid, hidden, hid. 


Hit, 


hit, hit. 


Hold, 


held, held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, kept. 


Knit, 


knit, r. knit, r. 


Know, 


knew, known. 


Lade, 


laded, laden. 


Lay, 


laid, laid. 


Lead, 


led, led. 


Leave, 


left, left. 


Lend, 


lent, lent. 


Let, 


let, let. 


Lie, to lie down, 


lay, lain. 


Load, 


loaded, laden, r. 



81 



* Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten is still in good use. 



82 

Present. 

Lose, 

Make, 

Meet, 

Mow, 

Pay, 

Put, 

Read, 

Rend, 

Rid, 

Ride, 

Ring, 

Rise, 

Rive, 

Run, 

Saw, 

Say, 

See, 

Seek, 

Sell, 

Send, 
Set, 

Shake, 

Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Show, 

Shoe, 

Shoot, 

Shrink, 

Shred, 

Shut, 

Sing, 

Sink, 

Sit, 

Slay, 

Sleep, 

Slide, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smite, 

Sow, 

Speak, 

Speed, 

Spend, 

Spill, 

Spin, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pas* Part. 


lost, 


lost. 


made. 


made. 


met, 


met. 


mowed, 


mown, r. 


paid, 


paid. 


put, 


put. 


read, 


read. 


rent, 


rent. 


rid, 


rid. 


rode, 


rode, ridden* 


rung, rang, 


rung. 


rose, 


risen, 


rived, 


riven. 


ran, 


run. 


sawed, 


sawn, r. 


said, 


said. 


saw, 


seen. 


sought, 


sought. 
sol(L 


sold, 


sent, 


sent. 


set, 


set. 


shook, 


shaken. 


shaped, 
shaved, 


shaped, shapen 
shaven, r. 


sheared. 


shorn. 


shed, 


shed. 


shone, r. 


shone, r. 


showed, 


shown. 


shod, 


shod. 


shot, 


shot. 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


shred, 


shred. 


shut, 


shut. 


sun£, sang, 
sunk, sank, 


sung. 


sunS. 


sat, 


sat. 


slew, 


slain. 


slept, 


slept. 


slid, 


slidden. 


slung, 
slunk, 


slung 


slunk. 


slit, R. 


slit, or slitted. 


smote, 


smitten. 


sowed, 


sown, r. 


spoke, 


spoken. 


sped, 


sped. 


spent, 


spent. 


spilt, R, 


spilt. R 


spun, 


spun. 


* Ridden is nearly obsolete. 











ETYMOLOGY 




Present. 


imperfect. Perf. or Pass Part. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit, spitten.* 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stun£. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Stride, 


strode or strid, 


stridden 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck or skicken. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Strow or strew, 


strowed or strewed, 


C strown, strowed, 
\ strewed. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sweat. 


swet, r. 


swet, r. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, r. 


Swim, 


swum, swam, 


swum. 


Swing 


swung, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


throve, r. 


thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxen, r. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Work, 


wrought, 


wrought or worked, 


Wring. 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



83 



In the preceding list, some of the verbs will be found to be con- 
jugated regularly, as well as irregularly ; and those which admit of 
the regular form are marked with an r. There is a preference to 
be given to some of these, which custom and judgment must deter- 
mine. Those preterits and participles which are first mentioned in 
the list, seem to be most eligible. The Compiler has not inserted 
such verbs as are irregular only in familiar writing or discourse, and 
which are improperly terminated by f, instead of ed: as, learnt, 
spelt, spilt, &c. These should be avoided in every sort of composi- 
lion It is, however, proper to observe, that some contractions of 



Spitten is nearly obsolete. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ed into t, are unexceptionable : and others, the only established 
forms of expression : as crept, gilt, &c. : and lost, felt, slept, &c. 
These allowable and necessary contractions must therefore be care- 
fully distinguished by the learner, from those that are exceptionable. 
The words which are obsolete have also been omitted, that the 
learner might not be induced to mistake them for words in present 
use. Such are, wreathen, drunken, holpen, molten, gotten, nolden, 
bounden, &c. : and swang, wrang, slank, strawed, gat, brake, tare, 
ware, &c. 

SECTION XI. 

Of Defective Verbs, and of the different ways in which verbs are 
conjugated. 

Defective Verbs are those which are used only in 
some of their moods and tenses. 

The principal of them are these. 

Present. Imperfect. Perf. or Pass. Part. 

Can, could, 

May, might, 

Shall, should, 

Will, would, 

Must, must, 

Ought, ought, 

quoth, 

That the verbs must and ought have both a present and past sig- 
nification, appears from the following sentences : " I must own that 
I am to blame ;" " He must have been mistaken ;" " Speaking things 
which they ought not;" "These ought ye to have done." 

In most languages there are some verbs which are defective with 
respect to persons. These are denominated impersonal verbs. They 
are used only in the third person, because they refer to a subject 
peculiarly appropriated to that person ; as, " It rains, it snows, it 
hails, it lightens, it thunders." But as the word impersonal implies 
a total absence of persons, it is improperly applied to those verbs 
which have a person : and hence it is manifest, that there is no such 
thing in English, nor indeed, in any language, as a sort of verbs 
really impersonal. 

The whole number of verbs in the English language, regular and 
irregular, simple and compounded, taken together, is about 4300. 
The number of irregular verbs, the defective included, is about 
177.* 

Some grammarians have thought that the English verbs, as well 
as those of the Greek, Latin, French, and other languages, might 
be classed into several conjugations ; and that the three different 
terminations of the participle might be the distinguishing charac- 
teristics. They have accordingly proposed three conjugations, 

* The whole number of words, in the English language, is about thirty-five 
thousand. 



ETYMOLOGY. 85 

namely, the first to consist of verbs, the participles of which end in 
ed or its contraction t ; the second, of those ending in ght ; and the 
third of those in en. But as the verbs of the first conjugation, would 
so greatly exceed in number those of both the others, as may be 
seen by the preceding account of them ; and as those of the third 
conjugation are so various in their form, and incapable of being re- 
duced to one plain rule; it seems better in practice, as Dr. Lowth 
justly observes, to consider the first in ed as the only regular form, 
and the other as deviations from it ; after the example of the Saxon 
and German grammarians. 

Before we close the account of the verbs, it may afford instruction 
to the learners, to be informed, more particularly than they have 
been, that different nations have made use of different contrivances 
for marking the tenses and moods of their verbs. The Greeks and 
Latins distinguish them, as well as the cases of their nouns, adjec- 
tives, and participles, by varying the termination, or otherwise 
changing the form, of the word ; retaining, however, those radical 
letters, which prove the inflection to be of the same kindred with 
its root. The modern tongues, particularly the English, abound in 
auxiliary words, which vary the meaning of the noun, or the verb, 
without requiring any considerable varieties of inflection. Thus, 
1 do love, I did love, I have loved, I had loved, I shall love, have the 
same import with amo, amabam, amavi, amaveram, amabo. It is 
obvious, that a language, like the Greek or Latin, which can thus 
comprehend in one word the meaning of two or three words, must 
have some advantages over those which are not so comprehensive 
Perhaps, indeed, it may not be more perspicuous; but, in the 
arrangement of words, and consequently in harmony and energy, 
as well as in conciseness, it may be much more elegant. 

CHAPTER VII. 
OF ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an 
adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express 
some quality or circumstance respecting it : as, " He 
reads well;" " A truly good man 5" " He writes very 
correctly." 

Some adverbs are compared, thus, "Soon, sooner, 
soonest;" "often, oftener, oftenest." Those ending 
in Zy, are compared by more, and most: as, " Wisely, 
more wisely, most wisely." 

Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to express com- 
pendiously in one word, what must otherwise have required two or 
more : as, " He acted wisely," for, he acted with wisdom ; " pru 
dently," for, with prudence ; " He did it here," for, l\e did it in this 

8 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

place; " exceedingly," for, to a gTeat degree; "often and seldom," 
lor many, and for few times ; " very," for, in an eminent degree, he 

There are many words in the English language that are sometimes 
used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs : as, "More men than 
women were there;" or, " I am more diligent than he." In the 
former sentence more is evidently an adjective, and in the latter, an 
adverb. There are others that are sometimes used as substantives, 
and sometimes as adverbs: as, "To-day's lesson is longer than 
yesterday's ;" here to-day and yesterday are substantives, because 
they are words that make sense of themselves, and admit besides 
of a genitive case : but in the phrase, " He came home yesterday, 
and sets out again to-day," they are adverbs of time ; because they 
answer to the question when. The adverb much is used as all three: 
as, "Where much is given, much is required;" "Much money has 
been expended;" "It is much better to go than to stay." In the 
first of these sentences, much is a substantive ; in the second, it is 
an adjective; and in the third, an adverb. In short, nothing but the 
sense can determine what they are. 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to certain 
classes, the chief of which are those of Number, Order, Place, 
Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirmation, Negation, 
Interrogation, and Comparison. 

1. Of number: as, "Once, twice, thrice," &c. 

2. Of order: as, "First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, 
finally," &c. 

3. Of place : as, " Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, 
somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, 
downward, forward, backward, whence, hence, thence, whither- 
soever," &c. 

4. OHime. 

Of time present : as, "Now, to-day," &c. 

Of time past : as, "Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, 
hitherto, long since, long ago," &c. 

Of time to come: as, "To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, 
henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straight- 
ways," &c. 

Of time indefinite: as, " Oft, often, oft-times, often-times, some- 
times, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, 
then, ever, never, again," &c. 

5. Of quantity: as, "Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how 
great, enough, abundantly," &c. 

6. Of manner or quality : as, " Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, 
quickly, slowly," &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous 
kind ; and they are generally formed by adding the termination ly 
to an adjective or participle, or changing le into ly : as, " Bad, badly; 
cheerfully ; able, ably ; admirable, admirably." 

7. Of doubt: as, " Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance." 

8. Of affirmation: as, "Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, 
certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really," &c. 

9. Of negation: as, "Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in 
nowise," &c, 



ETYMOLOGY. 87 

10. Of interrogation : as, "How, why, wherefore, whether," &c. 

11. Of comparison: as, "More, most, better, best, worse, worst 
less, least, very, almost, little, alike," &c. 

Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many which 
are formed by a combination of several of the prepositions with the 
adverbs of place, here, there, and where : as, " Hereof, thereof, 
whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby, whereby; here- 
with, therewith, wherewith ; herein, therein, wherein ; therefore, 
(i. e. there-for,) wherefore, (i. e. where-for,) hereupon or hereon, 
thereupon or thereon, whereupon or whereon, See. Except there- 
fore, these are saldom used. 

In some instances the preposition suffers no change, but becomes 
an adverb merely by its application: as when we say, "he rides 
about;" "he was near falling;" "but do not after lay the blame on 
me." 

There are also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and 
the letter a used instead of at, on, &c. : as, " Aside, athirst, afoot, 
ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat," &c. 

The words xohen and where, and all others of the same nature, such 
as, whence, whither, whenever, wherever, &c. may be properly called 
adverbial conjunctions, because they participate the nature both of 
adverbs and conjunctions: of conjunctions, as they conjoin sen- 
tences ; of adverbs, as they denote the attributes either of time or of 
place. 

It may be particularly observed with respect to the word there- 
fore, that it is an adverb, when, without joining sentences, it only 
gives the sense of, for that reason. When it gives that sense, and 
also connects, it is a conjunction : as, " He is good, therefore he is 
nappy." The same observation may be extended to the words con- 
sequently, accordingly, and the like. When these are subjoined to 
and, or joined to if, since, &c. they are adverbs, the connexion being 
made without their help : when they appear single, and unsupported 
by any other connective, they may be called conjunctions. 

The inquisitive scholar may naturally ask, what necessity there 
is for adverbs of time, when verbs are provided with tenses, to show 
that circumstance. The answer is, though tenses may be sufficient 
to denote the greater distinctions of time, yet, to denote thera all 
by the tenses would be a perplexity without end. What a variety 
of forms must be given to the verb, to denote yesterday, to-day, to- 
morrow, formerly, lately, just now, now, immediately, presently, soon, 
hereafter, &c. It was this consideration that made the adverbs of 
time necessary, over and above the tenses. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

OF PREPOSITI ON S. 

Prepositions serve to connect words with one an- 
other, and to show the relation between them. They 
are, for the most part, put before nouns and pronouns, 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

as, " He went from London to York ;" " She is above 
disguise;" "They are instructed by him." 
The following is a list of the principal prepositions : 



Of 


into 


above 


at 


off 


to 


within 


below 


near 


on or upon 


for 


without 


between 


up 


among 


by 


over 


beneath 


down 


after 


with 


under 


from 


before 


about 


in 


through 


beyond 


behind 


against. 



Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition : as, to 
uphold, to invest, to overlook: and this composition sometimes 
gives a new sense to the verb ; as, to understand, to withdraw, to 
forgive. But in English, the preposition is more frequently placed 
after the verb, and separately from it, like an adverb, in which 
situation it is not less apt to affect the sense of it, and to give it a 
new meaning ; and may still be considered as belonging to the verb, 
and as a part of it. As, to cast, is to throw ; but to cast up, or to 
compute, an account, is quite a different thing : thus, to fall on, to 
bear out, to give over, &c. So that the meaning of the verb, and 
the propriety of the phrase, depend on the preposition subjoined. 

In the composition of many words, there are certain syllables 
employed, which grammarians have called inseparable prepositions : 
as, be, con, mis, &c. in bedeck, conjoin, mistake : but as they are 
not words, of any. kind, they cannot properly be called a species of 
preposition. 

One great use of prepositions, in English, is, to express those 
relations, which, in some languages, are chiefly marked by cases, 
or the different endings of nouns. See page 39. The necessity and 
use of them will appear from the following examples. If we say, 
"he writes a pen," " they ran the river," "the tower fell the Greeks," 
"Lambeth is Westminster-abbey," there is observable, in each of 
these expressions, either a total want of connexion, or such a con- 
nexion as produces falsehood or nonsense : and it is evident, that 
before they can be turned into sense, the vacancy must be filled up 
by some connecting word : as thus, " He writes with a pen ;" " they 
ran towards the river ;" " the tower fell upon the Greeks ;" " Lam- 
beth is over against Westminster- abbey." We see by these in- 
stances, how prepositions may be necessary to connect those words, 
which in their signification are not naturally connected. 

Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, seem to 
have denoted relations of place ; but they are now used figuratively 
to express other relations. For example, as they who are above 
have in several respects the advantage of such as are below, prepo- 
sitions expressing high and low places are used for superiority and 
inferiority in general: as, " He is above disguise ;" "we serve under 
a good master;" "he rules over a willing people;" "we should do 
nothing beneath our character." 

The importance of the prepositions will be further perceived by 
the explanation of a few of them. 

Of denotes possession or belonging, an effect or consequence, and 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 

other relations connected with these : as, " The house of my friend ;' 
that is, "the house belonging to my friend;" " He died of a. fevei ;•' 
that is, "in consequence of a fever." 

To, or unto, is opposed to from ; as, " He rode from Salsbury to 
Winchester." 

For indicates the cause or motive of any action or circumstance, 
&c. as, " He loves her for (that is, on account of) her amiable 
qualities." 

By is generally used with reference to the cause, agent, means, 
&c: as, "He was killed by a fall;" that is, "a fall was the cause 
of his being killed;" "This house was built by him;" that is, "he 
was the builder of it." 

With denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, &c: as, "We 
will go with you ;" " They are on good terms urith each other." 

With also alludes to the instrument or means; as, " He was cut 

vriih a knife." 

In relates to time, place, the state or manner of being or acting, 
&c: as, " He was born in (that is, during) the year 1720;" "He 
dwells in the city," " She lives in affluence." 

Into is used after verbs that imply motion of any kind: as, "He 
retired into the country ;" " Copper is converted into brass." 

Within, relates to something comprehended in any place or time : 
as, " They are within the house ;" " He began and finished his work 
within the limited time." 

The signification of without is opposite to that of within : as, " She 
stands without the gate :" But it is more frequently opposed to with; 
as, " You may go without me." 

The import and force of the remaining prepositions will be readily 
understood, without a particular detail of them. We shall, therefore, 
conclude this head witn observing, that there is a peculiar propriety 
in distinguishing the use of the prepositions by and with; which is 
observable in sentences like the following: " He walks with a staff 
by moonlight;" "He was taken by stratagem, and killed with a 
sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and say, " he walks 
by a staff with moonlight ;" " he was taken with stratagem, and killed 
by a sword ;" and it will appear, that they differ in signification 
more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine. 

Some of the prepositions have the appearance and effect of con- 
junctions; as, "Jlfter their prisons were thrown open," &c. " Be- 
fore I die ;" " They made haste to be prepared against their friends 
arrived:" but if the noun time, which is understood, be added, they 
will lose their conjunctive form; as, "After [the time when] their 
prisons," &c. 

The prepositions after, before, above, beneath, and several others, 
sometimes appear to be adverbs, and maybe so considered : as, 
"They had their reward soon after;" " He died not long before;" 
"He dwells above :" but if the nouns time and place be aided, they 
will lose their adverbial form ; as, " He died not long before that 
time," &c. 

8* 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER IX. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly 
used to connect sentences; so as, out of two or more 
sentences, to make but one. It sometimes connects 
only words. 

Conjunctions are principally divided into two sorts, 
the copulative and the disjunctive. 

The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to 
continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a sup- 
position, a cause, &c. : as, 44 He and his brother reside 
in London; 9 ' 44 I will go if he will accompany me." 
44 You are happy, because you are good." 

The Conjunction Disjunctive serves, not only to 
connect and continue the sentence, but also to ex- 
press opposition of meaning in different degrees : as, 
44 Though he was frequently reproved, yet he did not 
reform ;" 44 They came with her, but they went away 
without her." 

The following is a list of the principal Conjunctions. 

The Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, 
therefore, wherefore. 

The Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, 
either, neither, yet, notwithstanding. 

The same word is occasionally used both as a conjunction 
and as an adverb; and sometimes, as a preposition. 4< I rest then 
upon this argument ;" then is here a conjunction : in the following 
phrase, it is an adverb; "He arrived then, and not before." "1 
submitted; for it was vain to resist:" in this sentence, for is a 
conjunction; in the next, it is a preposition: " He contended for 
victory only." In the first of the following sentences, since is a 
conjunction ; in the second, it is a preposition ; and in the third, an 
adverb : " Since we must part, let us do it peaceably :" "I have not 
seen him since that time :" " Our friendship commenced long since." 

Relative pronouns as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sen- 
tences : as, " Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, and keepeth 
his commandments." 

A relative pronoun possesses the force both of a pronour and a 
connective. Nay, the union by relatives is rather closer, than that 
by mere conjunctions. The latter may form two or more sentences 
into one ; but, by the former, several sentences may incorporate in 
one and the same clause of a sentence. Thus, " thou seest a man, 
and he is called Peter," is a sentence consisting of two distinct 
clauses, united by the copulative and : but, •« the man whom thou 



ETYMOLOGY. 91 

seest is called Peter/' is a sentence of one clause, and not les3 com- 
prehensive than the other. 

Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear to 
unite only words ; as in the following instances : « Duty and interest 
forbid vicious indulgences ;" " Wisdom or folly governs us." Each 
of these forms of expression contains two sentences, namely ; " Duty 
forbids vicious indulgences ; interest forbids vicious indulgences ;** 
" Wisdom governs us, or folly governs us." 

Though the conjunction is commonly used to connect sentences 
together, yet, on some occasions, it merely connects words, not 
sentences ; as, " The king and queen are an amiable pair f where 
the affirmation cannot refer to each ; it being absurd to say, that the 
king or the queen only is an amiable pair. So in the instances, 
" two and two are four ;" " the fifth and sixth volumes will com- 
plete the set of books." Prepositions also, as before observed, con- 
nect words ; but they do it to show the relation which the connected 
words have to each other : conjunctions, when they unite words 
only, are designed to show the relations, which those words, so 
united, have to other parts of the sentence. 

As there are many conjunctions and connective phrases appro- 
priated to the coupling of sentences, that are never employed in 
joining the members of a sentence ; so there are several conjunctions 
appropriated to the latter use, which are never employed in the 
former ; and some that are equally adapted to both those purposes : 
as, again, further, besides, &c. of the first kind ; than, lest, unless, 
that, so that, &c. of the second; and but, and, for, therefore, &c. of 
the last. 

We shall close this chapter with a few observations on the 
peculiar use and advantage of the conjunctions ; a subject which 
will, doubtless, give pleasure to the ingenious student, and expand 
his views of the importance of his grammatical studies. 

" Relatives are not so useful in language, as conjunctions. The 
former make speech more concise ; the latter make it more explicit. 
Relatives comprehend the meaning of a pronoun and conjunction 
copulative : conjunctions, while they couple sentences, may also 
express opposition, inference, and many other relations and depen- 
dences. 

Till men began to think in a train, and to carry their reasonings 
to a considerable length, it is not probable that they would make 
much use of conjunctions, or of any other connectives. Ignorant 
people, and children, generally speak in short and separate sen- 
tences. The same thing is true of barbarous nations ; and hence 
uncultivated languages are not well supplied with connecting 
particles. The Greeks were the greatest reasoners that ever ap- 
peared in the world ; and their language, accordingly, abounds more 
than any other in connectives. 

Conjunctions are not equally necessary in all sorts of writing. 
In poetry, where great conciseness of phrase is required, and every 
appearance of formality avoided, many of them would have a bad 
effect. In passionate language too, it may be proper to omit them : 
because it is the nature of violent passion, to speak rather in ilis- 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

jointed sentences, than in the way of inference and argument 
Books of aphorisms, like the Proverbs of Solomon, have few con- 
nectives ; because they instruct, not by reasoning, but in detached 
observations. And narrative will sometimes appear very graceful, 
when the circumstances are plainly told, with scarcely any other 
conjunction than the simple copulative and : which is frequently the 
case in the historical parts of Scripture. When narration is full of 
images or events, the omission of connectives may, by crowding the 
principal words upon one another, give a sort of picture of hurry 
and tumult, and so heighten the vivacity of description. But when 
facts are to be traced down through their consequences, or upwards 
to their causes ; when the complicated designs of mankind are to be 
laid open, or conjectures offered concerning them ; when the histo- 
rian argues either for the elucidation of truth, or in order to state 
the pleas and principles of contending parties ; there will be occasion 
for every species of connective, as much as in philosophy itself. In 
fact, it is in argument, investigation, and science, that this part of 
speech is peculiarly and indispensably necessary." 

CHAPTER X. 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections are words thrown in between the 
parts of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions 
of the speaker: as, "Oh! I have alienated my friend; 
alas! I fear for life;" u O virtue! how amiable thou 
art!" 

The English Interjections, as well as those of other languages, 
are comprised within a small compass. They are of different sorts, 
according to the different passions which they serve to express. 
Those which intimate earnestness or grief, are, O! oh! ah! alas! 
Such as are expressive of contempt, are pish ! tush ! of wonder, 
heigh! really! strange! of calling, hem! ho! soho! of aversion, or 
disgust, foh! fie! away! of a call of the attention, lo! behold! hark! 
of requesting silence, hush! hist! of salutation, welcome! hail! all! 
hail ! Besides these, several others, frequent in the mouths of the 
multitude, might be enumerated : but, in a grammar of a cultivated 
tongue, it is unnecessary to expatiate on such expressions of passion, , 
as are scarcely worthy of being ranked among the branches of 
artificial language. — See the Octavo Grammar, 

CHAPTER XI. 

OF DERIVATION. 

SECTION I. Of the various ways in which words are derived from 

one another. 

Having treated of the different sorts of words, and their various 

modifications, which is the first part of Etymology, it is now proper 

to explain the methods by which one word is derived from another 






11 YMOLOGY. 98 

Words are derived from one another in various ways ; viz. 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and sometimes 
from adverbs. 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives. 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives. 

5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs: as, from "to love," 
comes " lover ;" from " to visit, visiter ;" from " to survive, sur- 
viver ;" &c. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to 
determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the 
noun from the verb, viz. " Love, to love ; hate, to hate : fear, to fear; 
sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk ; ride, to ride ; act, to act,'* &c. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and sometimes 
from adverbs : as, from the substantive salt, comes " to salt ;" from 
the adjective warm, " to warm ;" and from the adverb forward, " to 
forward." Sometimes they are formed by lengthening the vowel, 
or softening the consonant; as, from "grass, to graze:" sometimes 
by adding en ; as, from " length, to lengthen ;" especially to adjec- 
tives; as, from " short, to shorten ; bright, to brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives, in the following 
manner; Adjectives denoting plenty are derived from substantives, 
by adding y: as, from "Health, healthy ; wealth, wealthy; might, 
mighty," &c. 

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made, 
are derived from substantives by adding en: as, from "Oak, oaken; 
wood, wooden ; wool, woolen," &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from substantives, by 
adding Jul: as, from " Joy, joyful ; sin, sinful: fruit, fruitful," &c. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, 
are derived from substantives, by adding some: as, from "Light, 
lightsome; trouble, troublesome; toil, toilsome," &c. 

Adjectives denoting v/ant, are derived from substantives, by ad- 
ding less : as, from " Worth, worthless ;" from " care, careless ; joy, 
joyless," &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from substantives, by 
adding ly: as, from "Man, manly; earth, earthly; court, courtly," 
&c. 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from sub- 
stantives, by adding ish to them ; which termination, when added to 
adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality ; as, " White, 
whitish;" i. e. somewhat white. When added to substantives, it 
signifies similitude or tendency to a character: as, "child, childish; 
thief, thievish." 

Some adjectives are formed from substantives or verbs, by adding 
the termination able; and those adjectives signify capacity: as, 
"Answer, answerable; to change, changeable." 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding 
the termination ness : as, " White, whiteness ; swift, swiftness :" 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sometimes by adding th or t, and making a small change in some of 
the letters : as, " Long, length ; high, height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding ly, 
or changing le into ly, and denote the same quality as the adjectives 
from which they are derived: as, from " base," comes "basely;" 
from "slow, slowly;" from " able, ably." 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, 
that it would be extremely difficult, and nearly impossible, to 
enumerate them. The primitive words of any language are very 
few; the derivatives form much the greater number. A few more 
instances only can be given here. 

Some substantives are derived from other substantives, by adding 
the termination hood or head, ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ran, ment, 
and age. 

Substantives ending in hood or head, are such as signify character 
or qualities: as, " Manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &c. 

Substantives ending in ship, are those that signify office, employ- 
ment, state, or condition : as, " Lordship, stewardship, partnership/' 
Sec. Some substantives in ship, are derived from adjectives: a3, 
" Hard, hardship," &c. 

Substantives which end in ery, signify action or habit : as, 
"Slavery, foolery, prudery," &c. Some substantives of this sort 
come from adjectives ; as, " Brave, bravery," &c. 

Substantives ending in wick, rick, and dom, denote dominion, 
jurisdiction, or condition : as, " Bailiwick, bishoprick, kingdom, 
dukedom, freedom," &c. 

Substantives which end in ian, are those that signify profession; 
as, " Physician, musician," &c. Those that end in ment and age, 
come generally from the French, and commonly signify the act or 
habit : as, " Commandment, usage." 

Some substantives ending in ard, are derived from verbs or adjec- 
tives, and denote character or habit: as, "Drunk, drunkard; dote, 
dotard." 

Some substantives have the form of diminutives ; but these are 
not many. They are formed by adding the terminations, kin, ling, 
ing, ock, el, and the like: as, "Lamb, lambkin; goose, gosling; 
duck, duckling ; hill, hillock ; cock, cockerel," &c. 

That part of derivation which consists in tracing English words 
to the Saxon, Greek, Latin, French, and other languages, must be 
omitted, as the English scholar is not supposed to be acquainted 
with these languages. The best English dictionaries will, however, 
furnish some information on this head, to those who are desirous of 
obtaining it. The learned Home Tooke, in his "Diversions of 
Purley," has given an ingenious account of the derivation and 
meaning of many of the adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. 

It is highly probable that the system of this acute grammarian, 
is founded in truth ; and that adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, 
are corruptions or abbreviations of other parts of speech. But as 
many of them are derived from obsolete words in our own language, 
or from words in kindred languages, the radical meaning of which 
is, therefore, either obscure, or generally unknown ; as the system 



ETYMOLOGY. 95 

of this very able etymologist is not universally admitted; ana as, by 
long- prescription, whatever may have been their origin, the words 
in question appear to have acquired a title to the rank of distinct 
species ; it seems proper to consider them, as such, in an elementary 
treatise of grammar : especially as this plan coincides with that, by 
which other languages must be taught ; and will render the study 
of them less intricate. It is of small moment, by what names and 
classification we distinguish these words, provided their meaning 
and use are well understood. A philosophical consideration of the 
subject may, with great propriety, be entered upon by the gram- 
matical student, when his knowledge and judgment become more 
improved. 

SECTION II. 

A sketch of the steps, by vjhich the English Language has risen to its 
present state of refinement. 

Before we conclude the subject of derivation, it will probably 
be gratifying to the curious scholar, to be informed of some par- 
ticulars respecting the origin of the English language, and the vari- 
ous nations to which it is indebted for the copiousness, elegance, 
and refinement, which it has now attained. 

"When the ancient Britons were so harassed and oppressed by 
the invasions of their northern neighbours, the Scots and Picts, that 
their situation was truly miserable, they sent an embassy (about the 
middle of the fifth century) to the Saxons, a warlike people inhabit- 
ing the north of Germany, with solicitations for speedy relief. The 
Saxons accordingly came over to Britain, and were successful in 
repelling the incursions of the Scots and Picts ; but seeing the weak 
and defenceless state of the Britons, they resolved to take advantage 
of it; and at length established themselves in the greater part of 
South- Britain, after having dispossessed the original inhabitants. 

u From these barbarians, who founded several petty kingdoms in 
this island, and introduced their own laws, language, and manners, 
is derived the groundwork of the English language ; which, even in 
its present state of cultivation, and notwithstanding the successive 
augmentations and improvements, which it has received through 
various channels, displays very conspicuous traces of its Saxon 
original. 

"The Saxons did not long remain in quiet possession of the king- 
dom ; for before the midle of the ninth century, the Danes, a hardy 
and adventurous nation, who had long infested the northern seas 
with their piracies, began to ravage the English coasts. Their first 
attempts were, in general, attended with such success, that they 
were encouraged to a renewal of their ravages ; till, at length, in 
the beginning of the eleventh century, they made themselves mas- 
ters of the greater part of England. 

" Though the period, during which these invaders occupied the 
English throne, was very short, not greatly exceeding half a century, 
it is highly probable that some change was introduced by them into 
the language spoken by those, whom they had subdued : but this 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

change cannot be supposed to have been very considerable, as the 
Danish and Saxon languages arose from one common source, the 
Gothic being the parent of both. 

" The next conquerors of this kingdom, after the Danes, were the 
Normans, who, in the year 1066, introduced their leader William 
to the possession of the English throne. This prince, soon after his 
accession, endeavoured to bring his own language (the Norman- 
French) into use among his new subjects; but his efforts were not 
very successful, as the Saxons entertained a great antipathy to these 
haughty foreigners. In process of time, however, many Norman 
words and phrases were incorporated into the Saxon language : but 
its general form and construction still remained the same. 

" From the Conquest to the Reformation, the language continued 
to receive occasional accessions of foreign words, till it acquired 
such a degree of copiousness and strength, as to render it susceptible 
of that polish, which it has received from writers of taste and genius, 
in the last and present centuries. During this period, the learned 
have enriched it with many significant expressions, drawn from the 
treasures of Greek and Roman literature; the ingenious and the 
fashionable have imported occasional supplies of French, Spanish, 
Italian, and German words, gleaned during their foreign excursions ; 
and the connexions which we maintain, through the medium of 
government and commerce, with many remote nations, have made 
some additions to our native vocabulary. 

"In this manner did the ancient language of the Anglo-Saxons 
proceed, through the various stages of innovation, and the several 
gradations of refinement, to the formation of the present Encash 
tongue." 

See the Twelfth Chapter of the Octavo Grammar. 



PART III. 

SYNTAX. 

The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which treati 
of the agreement and construction of words in a sen- 
tence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a 
complete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 
A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one 
finite* verb: as, " Life is short." 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple 
sentences connected together: as, "Life is short, and 
art is long." "Idleness produces want, vice, and 
misery." 

As sentences themselves are derived into simple and compound, 
so the members of sentences may be divided likewise into simple 
and compound members ; for whole sentences, whether simple or 
compounded, may become members of other sentences, by means 
of some additional connexion : as in the following example : "The 
ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib ; but Israel doth 
not know, my people do not consider." This sentence consists of 
two compounded members, each of which is subdivided into two 
simple members, which are properly called clauses. 

There are three sorts of simple sentences ; the explicative, or 
explaining; the interrogative, or asking; the imperative, or com- 
manding. 

An explicative sentence is when a thing is said to be or not to 
be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not suffer, in a direct manner: as, 
"I am ; thou writest; Thomas is loved." If the sentence be nega- 
tive, the adverb not is placed after the auxiliary, or after the verb 
itself, when it has no auxiliary : as, "I did not touch him ;" or, "I 
touched him not." 

In an interrogative sentence, or when a question is asked, the 
nominative case follows the principal verb or the auxiliary; as, 
"Was it he?" "Did Alexander conquer the Persians?" 

In an imperative sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, to 
do, to suffer, or not, the nominative case likewise follows the verb 
or the auxiliary: as, "Go, thou traitor!" "Do thou go :" "Haste 
ye away:" unless the verb let be used; as, "Let us be gone." 

* Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. Verbs in thd 
infinitive mood have no respect to number or person. 
9 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 
making sometimes part of a sentence, and sometimes 
a whole sentence. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the 
subject, the attribute, and the object. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the at- 
tribute is the thing or action affirmed or denied of it 5 
and the object is the thing affected by such action. 

The nominative denotes the subject, and usually 
goes before the verb or attribute; and the word or 
phrase, denoting the object, follows the verb; as, " A 
wiseman governs his passions." Here, a wise man 
is the subject ; governs, the attribute, or thing affirmed; 
and his passion, the object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord 
and Government. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has with 
another, in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one part of speech 
has over another, in directing its mood, tense, or case. 

To produce the agreement and right disposition of 
vyords in a sentence, the following rules and observa- 
tions should be carefully studied. 

RULE r. 

A Verb must agree with its nominative case, in 
number and person: as, " I learn;" " Thou art im- 
proved;" "The birds sing." 

The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule. 
"What signifies good opinions, when our practice is bad ?" " what 
signify." "There's two or three of us, who have seen the work:" 
"there are." "We may suppose there was more impostors than 
one : ' "There were more." "I have considered what have been 
said on both sides in this controversy :" "what has been said." "If 
thou would be healthy, live temperately :" " if thou wouldst." "Thou 
sees how little has been done :" "thou seed." "Though thou cannot 
do much for the cause, thou may and should do something:" " canst 
not, mayst, and shouldst." "Full many a flower are born to blush 
unseen :" « is born." " A conformity of inclinations and qualities 
prepare us for friendship :'*' "prepares us." " A variety of blessings 
have been conferred upon us :" "has been." " In piety and virtue 
consist the happiness of man :" " consists." « To these precepts arc 
subjoined a copious selection of rules and maxims:" "is subjoined.* 



rule i.] SYNTAX. , f i>9 

*1. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes put 
as the nominative case to the verb : as, "To see the sun is pleasant;" 
"To be good is to be happy;" " A desire to excel others in learn- 
ing and virtue is commendable;" "That warm climates should 
accelerate the growth of the human body, and shorten its duration, 
is very reasonable to believe ;" " To be temperate in eating and 
drinking, to use exercise in the open air, and to preserve the mind 
free from tumultuous emotions, are the best preservatives of health." 

2. Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the participle, 
ought to have a nominative case, either expressed or implied : as, 
"Awake; arise ;" that is, "Awake ye ; arise ye." 

We shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the use of the 
verb without its nominative case. "As it hath pleased him of his 
goodness to give you safe deliverance, and hath preserved you in 
the great danger," &c. The verb " hath preserved ," has here no 
nominative case, for it cannot be properly supplied by the preceding 
word, "hiyi" which is in the objective case. It ought to be, " ana" 
as he hath preserved you;" or rather, "and to preserve you." "If 
the calm in which he was born, and lasted so long, had continued:" 
"and which lasted," &c. "These we have extracted from an his- 
torian of undoubted credit, and are the same that were practised," 
&c; " and they are the same." " A man whose inclinations led him 
to be corrupt, and had/great abilities to manage the business ;" "and 
who had," &c. "A cloud gathering in the north; which we have 
helped to raise, and may quickly break in a storm upon our heads ;" 
"and which may quickly." 

3. Every nominative case, except the cause absolute, and when 
an address is made to a person, should belong to some verb, either 
expressed or implied: as, "Who wrote this book?" "James;" that 
is, "James wrote it." "To whom thus Adam," that is, "spoke." 

One or two instances of the improper use of the nominative case, 
without any verb, expressed or implied, to answer it, may be 
sufficient to illustrate the usefulness of the preceding observation. 

" Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighbouring prince 
would have wanted a great deal of that incense which hath been 
offered up to him." The pronoun it is here the nominative case to 
the verb "observed;" and which rule, is left by itself, a nominative 
case without any verb following it. This form of expression, 
though improper, is very common. It ought to be, " If this rule 
had been observed," &c. "Man, though he has great variety of 
thoughts, and such from which others as well as himself might re- 
ceive profit and delight, ye they are all within his own breast." In 
this sentence, the nominative man stands alone and unconnected 
with any verb, either expressed or implied. It should be, " Though 
man has great variety," &c. 

4. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may 
be understood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree with 
either of them : but some regard must be had to that which is more 
naturally the subject of it, as also to that which stands next to the 

* The chief practical notes under each Rule, are regularly numbered, in orde 
to make them correspond to the examples in the volume of Exercises. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [rule ft. 

verb : as, "His meat was locusts and wild honey ;" " A great cause of 
the low state of industry were the restraints put upon it ;" " The 
wages of sin is death." 

5. When the nominative case has no personal tense of a verb, 

sdbut is put before a participle, iudependently on the rest of the 

sentence, it is called the case absolute : as, " Shame being lost, all 

virtue is lost ;" " That having been discussed long ago, there is no 

occasion to resume it." 

As in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in English, always 
the nominative, the followiug example is erroneous, in making it 
the objective. " Solomon was of the mind ; and I have no doubt 
he made as wise and true proverbs, as any body has done since ; 
him only excepted, who was a much greater and wiser man than 
Solomon." It should be, " he only excepted." 



The nominative case is commonly placed before the verb ; but 
sometimes it is put after the verb, if it is a simple tense ; and 
between the auxiliary, and the verb or participle, if a compound 
tense : as, « 

1st, When a question is asked, a command given, or a wish ex- 
pressed : a%, " Confidest thou in me?" " Read thou ;" " Mayst thou 
be happy !" " Long live the King !" 

2d, When a supposition is made without the conjunction if: as, 
" Were it not for this ;" " Had I been there." 

3d, When a verb neuter is used : as, " On a sudden appeared the 
king." 

4th, When the verb is preceded by the adverbs, here, there, then, 
thence, hence, thus, &c: as, " Here am I ;" " There was he slain ;" 
" Then cometh the end ;" " Thence ariseth his grief;" " Hence 
proceeds his anger ;" " Thus was the affair settled." 

5th, When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to be 
coupled with another sentence : as, " Ye shall not eat of it, neither 
shall ye touch it, lest ye die." 

Some grammarians assert, that the phrases, as follows, as appears, 
form what are called impersonal verbs ; and should, therefore, be 
confined to the singular number: as, "The arguments advanced 
were nearly as follows ;" "The positions were as appears incontro- 
vertible :" that is, "as it follows," " as it appears." If we give 
(say they) the sentence a different turn, and instead of as, say suck 
as, the verb is no longer termed impersonal; but properly agrees 
with its nominative, in the plural number : as, " The arguments 
advanced were nearly such as follow ;" "The positions were such 
as appear incontrovertible."* 

* These grammarians are supported by general usage, and by the authority 
of an eminent critic on language and composition. "When a verb is used im- 
personally," says Dr. Campbell, in his rhilosophy of Rhetoric, "it ought un- 
doubtedly to be in the singular number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed 
or understood." For this reason, analogy and usage favour this mode of ex- 
pression: " The conditions of the agreement mere as follows;" and not, as fol- 
low. A few late writers have inconsiderately adopted this last form, through 
a mistake of the construction. For the same reason, we ought to say, " I shall 



Rule ii.] SYNTAX. 101 

They who doubt the accuracy of Home Tooke's statement, 
* That as, however and whenever used in English, means the same 
as it, or that, or which ;" and who are not satisfied whether the 
verbs, in the sentence first mentioned, should be in the singular or 
the plural number, may vary the form of expression. Thus, the 
sense of the preceding sentences may be conveyed in the follow- 
ing terms. " The arguments advanced were nearly of the follow- 
ing nature ;" " The following are nearly the arguments which were 
advanced;" "The arguments advanced were nearly those which 
follow ;'< " It appears that the positions were incontrovertible ;' 
"That the positions were incontrovertible is apparent;" "The posi 
tions were apparently incontrovertible." See the Octavo Gram- 
mar, the Note under Rule I. 

RULE IX. 

Two or more nouns, &c. in the singular number, 
joined together by a copulative conjunction, expressed 
or understood, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, 
agreeing with them in the plural number: as, "So- 
crates and, Plato were wise; they were the most emi- 
nent philosophers of Greece; 99 " The sun that rolls 
over our heads, the food that we receive, the rest that 
we enjoy, daily admonish us of a superior and super- 
intending Power. 99 * 

This rule is often violated ; some instances of which are annexed. 
"And so was also James and John, the sons of Zebedee, who were 
partners with Simon ;" " and so were, also." " All joy, tranquillity, 
and peace, even for ever and ever, doth dwell ;" " dwell for ever." 
" By whose power all good and evil is distributed ;" " are distri- 
buted." " Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now 
perished ;" " are perished." " The thoughtless and intemperate 
enjoyment of pleasure, the criminal abuse" of it, and the forgetful- 
ness of our being accountable creatures, obliterates every serious 
thought of the proper business of life, and effaces the sense of reli- 
gion and of God ;" It ought to be, " obliterate" and " efface." 

1 When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely distinguishable 
in sense, and sometimes even when they are very different, some 
authors have thought it allowable to put the verbs," nouns, and pro- 
nouns, in the singular number : as, " Tranquillity and peace dwells 
there ;" " Ignorance and negligence has produced the effect ;" 
" The discomfiture and slaughter was very great." But is is evi- 
dently contrary to the first principles of grammar, to consider two 
distinct ideas as one, however nice may be their shades of differ- 
ence : and if there be no difference, one of them must be super- 
fluous, and ought to be rejected. 

consider his censures so far only as concerns my friend's conduct; 5 ' and not so 
far as concern.' 
* See the exceptions to this rule, at p. 48 of the JTey; L2rh edition, 
9* 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To support the above construction, it is said, that the verb may 
be understood as applied to each of the preceding terms ; as in the 
following example. " Sand, and salt, and a mass of iron, is easier 
to bear than a man without understanding." But besides the con- 
fusion, and the latitude of application, which such a construction 
would introduce, it appears to be more proper and analogical, in 
cases where the verb is intended to be applied to any one of the 
terms, to make use of the disjunctive conjunction, which gramma- 
tically refers the verb to one or other of the preceding terms in a 
separate view. Te preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative 
and disjunctive conjunctions, would render the rules precise, con- 
sistent, and intelligible. Dr. Blair very justly observes, that " two 
or more substantives, joined by a copulative, must always require 
the verb or pronoun to which they refer, to be placed in the plural 
number." 

2 In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learners to de- 
termine, whether one or more of the clauses are to be considered 
as the nominative case ; and consequently, whether the verb should 
be in the singular or the plural number. We shall, therefore, set 
down a number of varied examples of this nature, which may serve 
as some government to the scholar, with respect to sentences of a 
similar construction. " Prosperity, with humility, renders its pos- 
sessor truly amiable." " The ship, with all her furniture, was de- 
stroyed." «• Not only his estate, his reputation too has suffered by 
his misconduct." "The general also, in conjunction with the 
officers, has applied for redress." " He cannot be justified; for it 
is true, that the prince, a3 well as the people, was blameworthy." 
" The king, with his lifeguard, has just passed through the village." 
" In the mutual influence of body and soul, there is a wisdom, a 
wonderful wisdom, which we cannot fathom." " Virtue, honour, 
nay, even self-interest, conspire to recommend the measure." "Pa- 
triotism, morality, every public and private consideration, demand 
our submission to just and lawful government." "Nothing delights 
me so much as the works of nature." 

In support of such forms of expression as the following, we see 
the authority of Hume, Priestly, and other writers ; and we annex 
them for the reader's consideration. " A long course of time, with 
a variety of accidents and circumstances, are requisite to produce 
those revolutions." " The king, with the lords and commons, form 
an excellent frame of government." " The side A, with the sides 
B and C, compose the triangle." " The fire communicated itself to 
the b.ed, which, with the furniture of the room, and a valuable li- 
brary, were all entirely consumed." It is, however, proper ;* ob- 
serve, that these modes of expression do not appear to be warran ed . 
by the just principles of construction. The words, " A long com se 
of time," "The king," "The side A," and "which," are t e 
true nominatives to the respective verbs. In the last example, th 3 . 
word all should be expunged. As the preposition with governs 
the objective case in Englisn ; and, if translated into Latin, would 
govern the ablative case, it is manifest that the clauses following 
with, in the preceding sentences, cannot form any part of the no- 






Rvle in, iv.] SYNTAX. 103 

minative case. They cannot be at the same time in the objective 
and the nominative cases. The following; sentence appears to be 
unexceptionable; and may serve to explain the others. "The 
lords and commons are essential branches of the British constitu- 
tion : the king, with them, forms an excellent frame of govern- 
ment."* 

3 If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined together 
by a copulative conjunction, be of several persons, in making the 
plural pronoun agree with them in person, the second person takes 

Flace of the third, and the first of both : as, "James, and thou, and 
, are attached to our country." " Thou and he shared it between 
you" 

RULE III. 

The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary 
to that of the conjunction copulative : for as the verb, 
noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms 
taken separately, it must be in the singular number: 
as, " Ignorance or negligence has caused this mis- 
take;" "John, James, or Joseph, intends to accom- 
pany me ;" " There is\ in many minds, neither know- 
ledge nor understanding." 

The following sentences are variations from this rule; "A man 
may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read 
them in a description ;" " read it." " Neither character nor dia- 
logue were yet understood;" "was yet." " It must indeed be con- 
fessed, that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or 
murder;" "does not carrying." " Death, or some w r orse mis- 
fortune, soon divide them." It ought to be " divides" 

1 When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different 
persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree with that 
person which is placed nearest to it : as, " I or thou art to blame ;" 
«« Thou or I am in fault:" "I, or thou, or he, is the author of it;" 
"George or I am the person." But it would be better to say; 
" Either I am to blame, or thou art," &c, 

2 When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pro- 
noun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural 
noun and pronoun : as, "Neither poverty nor riches were injurious 
to him;" "I or they were offended by it." But in this case, the 
plural noun or pronoun, w r hen it conveniently be done, should be 
placed next to the verb. 

RULE IV. 

A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may have 
a verb or pronoun agreeing with it, either of the sin- 

* Though the constmction will not admit of a plural verb, the sentence would 
certainly stand better thus : ci The king, the lords, and the commons, form an 
excellent constitution." 



104 ENGLISH GRAxMMAR. 

gular or plural number; yet not without regard to the 
import of the. word, as conveying unity or plurality of 
idea: as, "The meeting was large;" "The parlia- 
ment is dissolved ;" " The nation is powerful ;" " Mv 
people do not consider : they have not known me ;" 
" The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as their 
chief good ;" " The council were divided in their sen- 
timents." 

We ought to consider whither the term will immediately suggest 
the idea of the number it represents, or whether it exhibits to the 
mind the idea of the whole as one thing. In the former case, the 
verb ought to be plural ; in the latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, 
it seems improper to say, " The peasantry goes barefoot, and the 
middle sort makes use of wooden shoes." It would be better to 
say, "The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make use," 
&c. because the idea in both these cases, is that of a number. On 
the contrary, there is a harshness in the following sentences, in 
which nouns of number have verbs plural; because the ideas they 
represent seem not to be sufficiently divided in the mind. " The 
court of Rome were not without solicitude." " The house of com- 
mons were of small weight." " The house of lords were so much 
influenced by these reasons." " Stephen's party were entirely 
broken up by the captivity of their leader." " An army of twenty- 
four thousand were assembled." " What reason have the church of 
Rome for proceeding in this manner?" "There is indeed no con- 
stitution so tame and careless of their own defence." " All the vir- 
tues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but his follies 
and vices are innumerable." Is not mankind in this place a noun 
of multitude, and such as requires the pronoun referring to it to be 
in the plural number, their? 

RULE V. 

Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, 
and the nouns for which they stand, in gender and 
number : as, u This is the friend whom I love ;" "That 
is the vice which I hate ;" " The king and the queen 
had put on their robes;" "The moon appears, and she 
shines, but the light is not her own." 

The relative is of the same person as the antece- 
dent, and the verb agrees with it accordingly: as, 
" Thou who lovest wisdom;" " I who speak from ex- 
perience." 

Of this rule there are many violations to be met with ; a few 
of which may be sufficient to put the learner on his guard. " Each 
of the sexes should keep within its particular bounds, and content 
themselves with the advantages of their particular distii-cts :" better 



rule v.J SYNTAX. 105 

thus : " The sexes should keep within their particular bounds," &c. 
" Can any one on their entrance into the world, be fully secure that 
they shall not be deceived ?" "on his entrance," and " that he shall." 
" One should not think too favourably of ourselves ;" " of one's 
self." "He had one acquaintance which poisoned his principles ;" 
" who poisoned." 

Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, either 
expressed or implied : as, " Who is fatal to others is so to himself;" 
that is, " the man who is fatal to others." 

Who, which, what, and the relative that, though in the objective 
case, are always placed before the verb ; as are also their compounds, 
whoever, whosoever, &c; as, " He whom ye seek ;" " This is what, 
or the thing which, or that you want;" " Whomsoever you please 
to appoint." 

What is sometimes applied, in a manner which appears to be 
exceptionable : as, " All fevers, except what are called nervous," 
cic. It would at least be better to say, " except those which are 
called nervous." 

1 Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of the noun, 
are not employed in the same part of a sentence as the noun which 
they represent; for it would be improper to say, " The king he is 
just;" "I saw her the queen;" "The men iheij were there;" 
" Many words they darken speech;" " My banks they are furnished 
with bees." These personals are superfluous, as there is not the 
least occasion for a substitute in the same part where the principal 
word is present. The nominative case they, in the following sen- 
tence, is also superfluous ; " Who, instead cf going about doing 
good, they are perpetually intent upon doing mischief." 

2 The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as well as to 
things ; but after an adjective in the superlative degree, and after 
the pronominal adjective same, it is generally used in preference to 
who or which: as, "Charles XII. king of Sweden, was one of the 
greatest madmen that the world ever saw;" " Cataline's followers 
were the most profligate that could be found in any city." " He is 
the same man that we saw before." There are cases wherein we 
cannot conveniently dispense with this relative as aoplied to per- 
sons: first, after who the interrogative; " Who that has any sense 
of religion, would have argued thus?" Secondly, when persons 
make but a part of the antecedent ; " The woman, and the estate, 
that became his portion, were too much for his moderation." In 
neither of these examples could any other relative have been used. 

3 The pronouns whichsoever, whosoever, and the like, are elegant- 
ly divided by the interposition of the corresponding substantives: 
thus, " On whichsoever side the king cast his eyes;" would have 
sounded better, if written, " On which side soever," &c. 

4 Many persons are apt, in conversation to put the objective 
case of the personal pronouns, in the place of these and those: as, 
"Give me them books;" instead of "those books." We may 
sometimes find this fault even in writing: as, " Observe them, three 
there." We also frequently meet with those instead of they, at the 
beginning of a sentence, and where there is no particular reference 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [rule v 

to an antecedent ; as, " Those that sow in tears, sometimes reap in 
joy." They that, or they who sow in tears. 

It is not, however, always easy to say, whether a personal pro- 
noun or a demonstrative is preferable, in certain constructions. 
" We are not unacquainted with the calumny of them [or those] 
who openly make use of the warmest professions." 

5 In some dialects, the word what is improperly used for that, 
and sometimes we find it in this sense ir writing; " They will 
never believe but what I have been entirely to blame." " I am 
not satisfied but what," &c. instead of " but that." The word 
somewhat, in the following sentence, seems to be used improperly. 
" These punishments seem to have been exercised in somewhat an 
arbitrary manner." Sometimes we read, " In somewhat of." The 
meaning is, " in a manner which is in some respects arbitrary." 

6 The pronoun relative who is so much appropriated to persons, 
that there is generally harshness in the application of it, except to 
the proper names of persons, or the general terms man, woman, &g. 
A term which only implies the idea of persons, and expresses them 
by some circumstance or epithet, will hardly authorize the use of 
it: as, " That faction in England ivho most powerfully opposed his 
arbitrary pretensions." " That faction which," would have been 
better; and the same remark will serve for the following examples: 
" France, who was in alliance with Sweden." " The court, who," 
&c. "The cavalry, who," &c. "The cities who aspired at liber- 
ty." " That party among us, who," Sec. " The family whom they 
consider as usurpers." 

In some cases it may be doubtful, whether .this pronoun is pro- 
perly applied or not : as, " The number of substantial inhabitants 
with whom some cities abound." For when a term directly and 
necessarily implies persons, it may in many cases claim the perso- 
nal relative. "None of the company whom he most affected, could 
cure him of the melancholy under which he laboured." The word 
acquaintance may have the same construction. 

7 We hardly consider little children as persons, because that 
term gives us the idea of reason and reflection: and therefore the 
application of the personal relative who, in this case, seems to be 
harsh : " A child who" It is still more improperly applied to ani- 
mals : " A lake frequented by that fowl ivhom nature has taught to 
dip the wing in water." 

8 When the name of a person is used merely as a name, and it 
does not refer to the person, the pronoun who ought not to be ap- 
plied. " It is no wonder if such a man did not shine at the court 
of queen Elizabeth, who was but another name for prudence and 
economy." Better thus : " whose name was but another word for 
piudence," &c. The word whose begins likewise to be restricted 
to persons ; yet it is not done so generally, but that good Writers, 
even in prose, use it when speaking of things. The construction 
is not, however, generally pleasing, as we may see in the following 
instances : " Pleasure, whose nature," &c. " Call every production, 
whose parts and whose nature," &c. 

In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use which, with 



Kule vi.] SYNTAX. 107 

respect to persons ; and that is when we want to distinguish one 
person of two, or a particular person among a number of others. 
We should then say, " Which of the two," or " Which of them, is 
he or she ?" 

9 As the pronoun relative has no distinction of number, we 
sometimes find an ambiguity in the use of it : as when we say, 
" The disciples of Christ, whom we imitate ;" we may mean the 
imitation either of Christ, or of his disciples. The accuracy and 
clearness of the sentence, depend very much upon the proper and 
determinate use of the relative, so that it may readily present its 
antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader, without any ob- 
scurity or ambiguity. 

10 It is and it was, are often, after the manner of the French, 
used in a plural construction, and by some of our best writers : as, 
" It is either a few great men who decide for the whole, or it is the 
rabble that follow a seditious ringleader;' 5 " // is they that are the 
real authors, though the soldiers are the actors of the revolution;" 
" It was the heretics that first began to rail," &c; " 'Tie these that 
early taint the female mind." This license in the construction of 
it is, (if it be proper to admit it at all,) has, however, been cer- 
tainly abused in the following sentence, which is thereby made 
a very awkward one. " It is wonderful the very few accidents, 
which, in several years, happen from this practice." 

11 The interjections O! Oh! &ndJlh! require the objective case 
of a pronoun in the first person after them : as, "Ome! Oh me! 
Ah me ?" But the nominative case in the second person ; as, " O 
thou persecutor !" " Oh ye hypocrites !" " O thou, who dwellest," 
&c. 

The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the English lan- 
guage, is frequently joined in explanatory sentences, with a noun 
or pronoun of the masculine or feminine gender: as, '« It was I;, 1 ' 
" It was the r/^n or woman that did it." 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and understood; 
thus we say, " As.. appears, as follows ;" for " As it appears, as it 
follows ;" and " May be," for " It may be." 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to express ; 

1st, The subject of any discourse or inquiry : " It Happened on 
a summer's day;" " Who is it that calls on me ?" 

2d, The state or condition of any person or thing : as, " How is 
it with you >" 

3d, The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any effect or 
event, or any person considered merely as a cause : " as, " We 
heard her say it was not he :" " The truth is, it was I that helped 
her." 

RULE VI, 

The relative is the nominative case to the verb 
when no nominative comes between it and the verb : 
as, " The master who taught us ;" " The trees which 
are planted." 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR,*^* 

When a nominative comes between the relative and 
the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its 
own member of a sentence: as, " He who preserves 
me, to whom I owe my being, whose I am, and whom 
I serve, is eternal. 5 ' 

In the several members of the last sentence, the relative performs 
a different office. In the first member, it marks the agent; in the 
second, it submits to the government of the preposition ; in the 
third, it represents the possessor ; and in the fourth, the object of an 
action : and therefore it must be in the three different cases, corres- 
pondent to those offices. 

When both the antecedent and relative become nominatives, each 
to different verbs, the relative is the nominative to the former, and 
the antecedent to the latter verb : as, " True philosophy, which is the 
ornament of our nature, consists more in the love of our duty, and 
the practice of virtue, than in great talents and extensive know- 
ledge." 

A few instances of erroneous construction, will illustrate both 
the branches of the sixth rule. The three following refer to the 
first part. " How can we avoid being grateful to those whom, by 
repeated kind offices, have proved themselves our real friends !" 
" These are the men whom, you might suppose, were the authors 
of the work:" "If you were here, you would find three or four, 
whom you would say passed their time agreeably :" in all these 
places it should be who instead of whom. The two latter sentences 
contain a nominative between the relative and the verb ; and there- 
fore seem to contravene the rule : but the student will reflect, that 
it is not the nominative of the verb with which the relative is con- 
nected. The remaining examples refer to the second part of the 
rule. "Men of fine talents are not always the persons who we 
should esteem." " The persons who you dispute with, are pre- 
cisely of your opinion." " Our tutors are our benefactors, who we 
owe obedience to, and who we ought to !bv^" In these sentences, 
whom should be used instead of who. N^ 

1 When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the 
noun or pronoun containing the answer, must be in the same case 
as that which contains the question : as, " Whose books are these? 
They are John's." " Who gave them to him ? We" «* Of whom 
did you buy them ? Of a bookseller; him who lives at the Bible 
and Crown." " Whom did you see there ? Both him and the shop- 
man." The learner will readily comprehend this rule, by supply- 
ing the words which are understood in the answers. — Thus to 
express the answers at large, we should say, " They are John's 
books." " We gave them to him." " We bought them of him 
who lives," &c. " We saw both him and the shopman." — As the 
relative pronoun, when used interrogatively, refers to the subse- 
quent word or phrase containing the answer to the question, that 
word or phrase may properly be termed the subsequent to the inter- 
rogative. 



KuL£ vir, vm.] SYNTAX. 109 

RULE VII. 

When the relative is preceded by two nominatives 
of different persons, the relative and verb may agree 
in person with either, according to the sense: as, " 1 
am the man who command you;" or, " I am the man 
who commands you." 

The form of the first of the two preceding sentences, expresses 
the meaning rather obscurely. It would be more perspicuous to 
say; " I, who command you, am the man." Perhaps the difference 
of meaning, produced by referring the relative to different ante- 
cedents, will be more evident to the learner, in the following sen- 
tences: "I am the general who gives the orders to-day ;" "I am 
the general, who give the orders to-day;" that is, " I, who give the 
orders to-day, am the general." 

When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree 
with either of the preceding nominatives, that agreement must be 
preserved throughout the sentence ; as in the. following instance . 
" I am the Lord that makeih all things ; that siretcheth forth the 
heavens alone." Isa. xliv. 24. Thus far is consistent: The Lord, 
in the third person, is the antecedent, and the verb agrees with the 
relative in the third person : " I am the Lord, which Lord, or he 
that maketh all things." If I were made the antecedent, the rela- 
tive and the verb should agree with it in the first person : as, " 1 
am the Lord, that make all things, that stretch forth the heavens 
alone." But should it follow: '''Thai spreadeth abroad the earth 
by myself;" there would arise a confusion of persons, and a mani- 
fest solecism. ~s — v -~ 

RULE VIII. 



Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, be- 
longs to a substantive, expressed or understood : as, 
" He is a good, as well as a wise man;" " Few are 
happy ;" that is, "persons :" " This is a pleasant 
walk;" that is, " This walk is," &c. 

Adjective pronouns must agree, in number, with 
their substantives : as, '* This book, these books; that 
sort, those sorts ; another road, other roads." 

I. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

A few instances of the breach of this rule are here exhibited. 
" 1 have not travelled this twenty years ;" " these twenty." " I am not 
recommending these kind of sufferings;" "this kind." "Those 
set of books was a valuable present;" "thai set." 

1 The word means in the singular numbe, and the phrases, "By 
this means," " By that means" are used by our best and most cor- 
rect writers ; namely. Bacon, Tillotson Mterburv. Addison, Steele, 
10 



110 Ex^GLISH GRAMMAR. 

Pope, &c* They are, indeed, in so general and approved use, 
that it would appear awkward, if not affected, to apply the Md sin- 
gular form, and say, " By this mean ; by that mean ; it was by a 
mean ;" although it is more agreeable to the general analogy of the 
language. " The word means (says Priestley) belongs to the class 
of words, which do not change their termination on account of 
number; for it is used alike in both numbers." 

The word amends is used in this manner, in the following sen- 
tences : "Though he did not succeed, he gained the approbation 
of his country; and with this amends he w T as content." " Peace of 
mind is an honourable amends for the sacrifices of interest." " In 
return, he received the thanks of his employers, and the present 
of a large estate : these were ample amends for all his labours." 
" We have described the rewards of vice : the good man's amends 
are of a different nature." 

It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like the word 
means) had ibrmerly its correspondent form in the singular number, 
as it is derived from the French amende, though now it is exclu 
sively established in the plural form. If, therefore, it be alleged 4 
that mean should be applied in the singular, because it is derived 
from the French moyen, the same kind of argument may be ad- 
vanced in favour of the singular amende ; and the general analogy 
of the language may also be pleaded in support of it. 

Campbell, in his " Philosophy of Rhetoric," has the following 
remark on the subject before us : " No persons of taste, will I pre- 

* " By this means, he had them the more at vantage, being tired and harassed 
with a lo g march." Bacon. 

" By this means one great restraint from doing evil, would be taken away." — 
"And this is an admirable means to improve men in virtue." — By that means 
they have rendered their duty more difficult." Tillotson. 

"It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that means se- 
curing the continuance of his goodness." — " A good character, when established, 
should not be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing still further 
good." Jitterbury. 

" By this means they are happy in each other." — " He by that means preserves 
his superiority." Addison. 

" Your vanity by this means will want its food." Steele. 

" By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." Pope. 

" Which custom has proved the most effectual means to ruin the nobles." 

Dean Swift. 

"There is no means of escaping the persecution." — "Faith is not only a 
means of obeying, but a principal act of obedience." Dr. Young. 

" He looked on money as a necessary means of maintaining and increasing 
power." Lord Lyttleton's Henry if. 

" John was too much intimidated not to embrace every means afforded for his 
safety." Goldsmith. 

" Lest this means should fail." — " By means of ship-money, the late king," &c. 
" The only means of securing a durable peace." i/twne. 

" By this means there was nothing left to the parliament of Ireland," &c. 

Blackstone. 

" By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands of their masters." 

Dr. Robertson. 

" By this means they bear witness to each other." Burke. 

"By this means the wrath of man was made to turn against itself." 

Dr. Blaii. 

A magazine, which has, by this means, contained," &c. — " Birds, ip general 
procure their fond by means of their beak. ,: Dr. Palcy 



Rule viii.] SYNTAX. Hi 

sume, venture so far to violate the present usage, and consequently 
to shock the ears of the generality of readers, so as to say, { By 
this mean, by that mean.' " 

Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of means in the 
singular number. They do not, however, speak decisively on the 
point; but rather dubiously, as if they knew that they were ques- 
tioning eminent authorities, as well as general practice. That 
they were not decidedly against the application of this word to the 
•Angular number, appears from their own language : " Whole sen- 
.ences, whether simple or compound, may become members of 
Dther sentences by means of some additional connexion. — Doctoi 
Lowth s Introduction to English Grammar. 

" There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is 
ignorant, but hy means of something already known." — Dr. John- 
sons Idler. 

It is remarkable that our present version of the Scriptures makes 
no use, so far as the compiler can discover, of the word mean; 
though there are several instances to be found in it of the use of 
means, in the sense and connexion contended for. " By this means 
thou shall have no portion on this side the river." Ezra iv. 16. 
" That by means of death," he. Heb. ix. 15. It w 7 ill scarcely be 
pretended, that the translators of the sacred volumes did not accu- 
rately understand the English language ; or that they would have 
admitted one form of thfs word, and rejected the other, had not 
tneir determination been conformable to the best usage. An at- 
tempt therefore to recover an old word long since disused by the 
most correct writers, seems not likely to be successful ; especially 
as the rejection of it is not likely to be attended with any incon- 
venience. 

The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a great ma- 
jority of them, corroborated by general usage, forms, during its 
continuance, the standard of language ; especially, if, in particular 
instances, this practice continue, alter objection and due conside- 
ration. Every connexion and application of words and phrases, 
thus supported, must therefore be proper, and entitled to respect, 
if not exceptionable in a moral point of view. 

a si volet usus 

Quern penes arbitriuni est, et jus, et norma loquencli." Hon. 

On this principle, many forms of expression, not less deviating 
from the general analogy of the language, than those before men- 
tioned, are to be considered as strictly proper and justifiable. Of 
this kind are the following. " None of them are varied to express 
the gender ;" and yet none originally signified no one. " He him- 
self shall do the work:" here, what was at first appropriated to the 
objective, is now properly used as the nominative case. " You 
have behaved yourselves well:" in this example, the word you is 
put in the nominative case plural, with strict propriety: though 
formerly it was confined to the objective case, and ye exclusively 
Used for the nominative. 
With respect to the anomalies and variations of language, thus 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule viii. 

established, it is the grammarian's business to submit, not to re- 
monstrate. In pertinaciously opposing the decision of proper 
authority, and contending for obsolete modes of expression, he 
may, indeed, display learning and critical sagacity ; and, in some 
degree, obscure points that are sufficiently clear and decided ; but 
he cannot reasonably hope either to succeed in his aims, or to assist 
the learner, in discovering and respecting the true standard and 
principles of language. 

Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the 
grammarian's province. Here, he may reason and remonstrate on 
the ground of derivation, analogy, and propriety; and his reason- 
ings may refine and improve the language : but. when authority 
speaks out and decides the point, it were perpetually to unsettle 
the language, to admit of cavil and debate. Anomalies, then under 
the limitation mentioned, become the law, as clearly as the plainest 
analogies. 

The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, the 
use of the word mean in the old form hath a very uncouth appear- 
ance : " By the mean of adversity we are often instructed." " He 
preserved his health by mean of exercise." "Frugality is one 
mean of acquiring a competency." They should be, " By means 
of adversity, &c. " By means of exercise, &c. " Frugality is one 
means," Sec. 

Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive mean in the 
singular number, and in that number only, to signify mediocrity, 
middle rate, &c. as, "This is a mean between the two extremes." 
But in the sense of instrumentality, it has been long disused by the 
best authors, and by almost every writer. 

This means and thai means should be used only when they refer 
to what is singular; these 'means and those means, when they respect 
plurals : as, " He lived temperately, and by this means preserved 
his health ;" " The scholars were attentive, industrious, and obe- 
dient to their tutors; and by these means acquired knowledge." 

We have enlarged on this article, that the young student may 
oe led to reflect on a point so important, as that of ascertaining the 
standard of propriety in the use of language. 

2 When two persons or things are spoken of in a sentence, and 
there is occasion to mention them again for the sake of distinction, 
that is used with reference to the former, and this, in reference to 
the latter: as, " Self-love, which is the spring of action in the soul, 
is ruled by reason: but for that, man would be inactive; and but 
lor this, he would be active to no end." 

3 The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every, either, agree 
with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of the singular number only: 
as, " The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat 
each on his throne;" " Every tree is known by its fruit:" unless 
the plural noun convey a collective idea: as, "Every six months;" 
" Every hundred years." The following phrases are exception- 
able. " Let each esteem others better than themselves :" It ought 
to be " himself," " The language should be both perspicuous and 
correct : in proportion as either of these two qualities are wanting, 



Rule vn, vm ] • SYNTAX. 113 

the language is imperfect :" it should be, •« is wanting." " .Etrarj 
one of the letters bear regular dates, and contain proofs of attach- 
ment:"' * bears a regular date, and contains.'" " Every town and 
village were burned; every grove and every tree were cut down:" 
"was burned, and ivas cut clown." See the Key, p. 16; and the 
Octavo Grammar, Second edition, volume 2, page 322. 

Either is often used improperly, instead of each: as, "The king 
of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king ol" Judah, sat either of them on 
his throne;" " Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took either of 
them his censer." Each signifies both of them taken distinctly or 
separately : either properly signifies only the one or the other of 
them taken disjunctively. 

In the course of this work, some examples will appear of errone- 
ous translations from the Holy Scriptures, with respect to gramma- 
tical construction : but it may be proper to remark, that notwith- 
standing these verbal mistakes, the Bible, for the size of it, is the 
most accurate grammatical composition that we have in the English 
language. The authority of several eminent grammarians might 
be adduced in support of this assertion ; but it may be sufficient 
to mention only that of Dr. Lowth, who says, " The present trans- 
lation of the Bible, is the best standard of English language." 

II. ADJECTIVES. 

4 Adjectives are sometives improperly applied as adverbs ; as, 
'" indifferent honest; excellent well ;• miserable poor;" instead of 
" indifferently honest; excellently well; miserably poor." "He 
behaved himself conformable to that great example ;" " conform- 
ably" " Endeavour to live hereafter suitable to a person in thy 
station ;" " suitably" " I can never think so very mean of him ;" 
" meanly." " He describes this river agreeable to the common 
reading :" " agreeably." " Agreeable to my promise, I now write :*' 
"agreeably." "Thy exceeding great reward:" When united to 
an adjective, or adverb not ending in ly, the word exceeding has ly 
added to it : as, "exceedingly dreadful, exceedingly great;" "ex- 
ceedingly well, exceedingly more active:" but wSen it is joined to 
an adverb or adjective, having that termination, the ly is omitted: 



i expected :" " They I 
haved the noblest, because they were disinterested." They should 
have been, " more boldly; most nobly." — The adjective pronoun such 
is often misapplied : as, "He was such an extravagant young man, 
that he spent his whole patrimony in a few years :" it should be, 
" so extravagant a young num." **1 never before saw such large 
trees :" "saw trees so large." When we refer to the species or na- 
ture of a thing, the word snch is properly applied : as, " Such a 
temper is seldom found :" but when degree is signified, we use the 
word so : as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." 

Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives : as, " The 
tutor addressed him in terms lather warm, but suitably to his of- 
fence ;" i% buiiable." " Thev were seen wandering about solitarily 
10* 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and distressed ;" " solitary." " He lived in a manner agreeably to 
the dictates of reason and religion ;" " agreeable." «* The study of 
syntax should be previously to that of punctuation ;" « previous."* 

5 Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided ; such 
as, "A worser conduct;" " On lesser hopes;" "A more serener 
temper;" "The most straitest sect:"" A more superior work." 
They should be, " worse conduct;" " less hopes ;" " a more serene 
temper ;" " the straitest sect ;" " a superior w T ork." 

6 Adjectives that have in themselves a*superlative signification, 
do not properly admit of the superlative or comparative form super- 
added : such as, " Chief, extreme, perfect, right, universal, supreme," 
&c; which are sometimes improperly written, " Chiefest, extremest, 
perfectest, rightest, most universal, most supreme," &c. The fol- 
lowing expressions are therefore improper. "He sometimes claims 
admission to the chiefest offices." " The quarrel became so univer- 
sal and national ;" * A method of attaining the rightest and greatest 
happiness." The phrases, so perfect, so right, so extreme, so uni- 
versal, &c. are incorrect; because they imply that one thing is less 
perfect, less extreme, &c. than another, which is not possible. 

7 Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the degrees 
of comparison are applied and construed. The following are ex- 
amples of w T rong construction in this respect : "This noble nation 
hath, of all others, admitted fewer corruptions." The word fewer 
is here construed precisely as if it w r ere the superlative. It should 
be, " This noble nation hath admitted fewer corruptions than any 
other." We commonly say, " This is the weaker of the two;" or, 
"The weakest of the two:" but the former is the regular mode of 
expression, because there are only two things compared. " The 
vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any 
other." "He celebrates the church of England as the most perfect 
of all others." Both these modes of expression are faulty: we 
should not say, "The best of any man," or, "The best of any 
other man," for " the best of men." The sentences may be cor- 
rected by substituting the comparative in the room of the superla- 
tive. " The vice, &c. is what enters deeper into the soul than any 
other." " He celebrates, &e, as more perfect than any other." It 
is also possible to retain the superlative, and render the expression 
grammatical. " Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deepest into 
the soul." "He celebrates, &c. as the most perfect of all churches." 
These sentences contain other errors, against which it is proper to 
caution the learner. The words deeper and deepest, being intended 
for adverbs, should have been more deeply, most deeply. The 
phrases more perfect, and most perfect, as improper ; because per- 
fection admits of no degrees of comparison. We may say nearer or 
nearest to perfection, or more or less imperfect. 

— 8 In some cases, adjectives should not be separated from their 
substantives, even by words which modify their meaning, and 
make but one sense with them: as, "A large enough number 

* For the rule to determine whether an adjective or an adverb is to bo us«<% 
*ee English exercises, Sixteenth, or any subsequent edition, page 140. 



rule viii.] SYNTAX. 115 

surely." It should be, " A number large enough." "The lower 
sort of people are good enough judges of one not very distant from 
them." * 



The adjective is usually placed before its substantive : "as, " A 
generous man ;" " How amiable a woman!" The instances in which 
it comes after the substantive, are the following. 

1st, When something depends upon the adjective ; and when it 
gives a better sound, especially in poetry ; as, "A man generous to 
his enemies;" "Feed me with food convenient for me;" "A tree 
three feet thick." " A body of troops fifty thousand strong ;" " The 
torrent tumbling through rocks abrupt." 

2d, When the adjective is emphatical : as, " Alexander the 
Great;" "Lewis the Bold;" "Goodness infinite;" "Wisdom un- 
searchable." + 

3d, When several acjectives belong to one substantive : as, " A 
man just, wise, and charitable ;" " A woman modest, sensible, and 
virtuous." 

4th, When the adjective is preceded by an adverb: as, "A boy 
regularly studious;" "A girl unaffectedly modest." 

5th, Wnen the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes oe- 
tween a substantive and an adjective, the adjective may frequently 
either precede or follow it: as, "The man is happy; or happy is 
the man who makes virtue his choice:" "The interview was de- 
lightful;" or, "delightful was the interview." 

5th, When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a sub- 
stantive placed after an active verb: as, "Vanity often renders its 
possessor despicable." In an exclamatory sentence, the adjective 
generally precedes the substantive : as, " How despicable does 
vanity often render its possessor!" ♦ 

There is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in placing the 
adjective before the verb, and the substantive immediately after it: 
as, " Great is the Lord ! just and trust are thy ways, thou King of 
saints!" 

Sometives the word all is emphatically put after a number of par 
ticulars comprehended under it. " Ambition, interest, honour, all 
concurred." Sometimes a substantive, which likewise compre- 
hends the preceding particulars, is used in conjunction with this 
adjective : as, " Royalists, republicans, churchmen, sectaries, 
courtiers, patriots, all parties, concurred in the illusion." 

An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will sometimes pro- 
perly associate with a singular noun : as, " Our desire, your inten- 
tion, their resignation." This association applies rather to things 
of an intellectual nature, than to those which are corporeal. It 
forms an exception to the general rule. 

A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compounded 
word, whence they often take another adjective, and sometimes a 
third, and so on : as, " An old man ; a ^t/od old man ; a very 
learned, judicious, good old man." 

Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, in 
many instances, put as if it were absojute ; especially where the 



5 g 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [rule rx 

noun has been mentioned before, or is easily understood, though* 
not expressed : as, " I often survey the green fields, as I am very 
fond of green ;" " The wise, the virtuous, the honoured, famed, 
and great," that is, " persons ;" " The twelve," that is, " apostles ;" 
m Have compassion on the poor ; be feet to the lame, and eyes to 
tb» Vind." 

Substantives are often used as adjectives. In this case, the word 
so used is sometimes unconnected with the substantive to which it 
relates ; sometimes connected with it by a hyphen ; and sometimes 
joined to it, so as to make the two words coalesce. The total sepa- 
ration is proper, when either of the two words is long, or when they 
cannot be fluently pronounced as one word: as, an adjective pro- 
noun, a silver watch, a stone cistern : the hyphen is used, when 
both the words are short, and are readily pronounced as a single 
word: as^ coal-mine, corn-mill, fruit tree: the words coalesce, 
w T hen they are readily pronounced together ; have a long established 
association ; and are in frequent use : as honeycomb, gingerbread, 
inkhorn, Yorkshire. 

Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive, and has another 
adjective joined to it : as, " The chief good;" " The vast immense 
of space." 

When an adjective has a preposition before it, the substantive 
being understood, it takes the nature of an adverb, and is considered 
as an adverb : as, " In general, in particular, in haste," &,c. ; that 
is, e * Generally, particularly, hastily." 

Enow was formerly used as the plural of enough : but it is now 
obsolete. 

RULE IX. 

The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singu- 
lar number only, individually or collectively: as, "A. 
christian, an infidel, a score, a thousand." The defi- 
nite article the may agree with nouns in the singular 
and plural number: as, "The garden, the houses, the 
stars," 

The articles are often properly omitted : when used, 
they should be justly applied, according to their dis- 
tinct nature: as, "Gold is corrupting; the sea is 
green; a lion is bold." 

It is of the nature of both the articles to determine or limit the 
thing spoken of. A determines it to be one single thing of the 
kind, leaving it still uncertain which : the determines which it is ; 
or of many, which they are. 

The following passage will serve as an example of the different 
uses of a and the, and of the force of the substantive without any 
article. "Man was made for society, and ought to extend his goo'd 
will to all men : but a man will naturally entertain a more particu- 
lar kindness for the men, with whom he has the most frequent inter- 



SYNTAX. 117 

course ; and enter into a still closer anion with the man whose tem- 
per and disposition suit best with his own." 

As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of some use 
to exhibit a few instances : " And I persecuted this way unto the 
death." The apostle does not mean any particular sort of death, 
but death in general : the definite article therefore is improperly 
used : it ought to be "unto death," without any article. 

" When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you into 
all truth ;" that is, according to this translation, " into ail truth 
whatsoever, into truth of all kinds;" very different from the mean- 
ing of the evangelist, and from the original, " into all the truth ;" 
that is, " into all evangelical truth, all truth necessary lor you to 
know." 

"Who breaks a butterfly upon a vvheel ?" it ought to be " the 
wheel," used as an instrument for the particular purpose of tor- 
turing criminals. " The Almighty hath given reason to a man to 
be light unto him :" it should rather be, " to man" in general. 
" This day is salvation come to this house, forasmuch as he also is 
the son of Abraham :" it ought to be, " a son of Abraham." 

These remarks may serve to show the great importance of the 
proper use of the article, and the excellence of the English lan- 
guage in this respect ; which by means of its two articles, does 
most precisely determine the extent of signification of common 
names. 

1 A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use 
or omission of the article a. If I say, " He behaved with a little 
reverence ;" my meaning is positive. If I say, " He behaved with 
little reverence ;" my meaning is negative. And these two are by no 
means the same, or to be used in the same cases. By the former, I 
rather praise a person ; by the latter, I dispraise him. For the sake 
of this distinction, which is a very useful one, we may better bear 
the seeming impropriety of the article a before nouns of number. 
When 1 say, " There were few men w T ith him ;" I speak diminu- 
tively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable : whereas, 
when I say . " There were a few men with him ;" I evidently in- 
tend to make the most of them. 

2 In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article to the for- 
mer of two words in the same construction : though the French 
never fail to repeat it in this case. 

" There were many hours, both of the night and day, which he 
could spend, without suspicion, in solitary thought." It might 
have been "of the night and of the day." And, for the sake of 
emphasis, we often repeat the article in a series of epithets. " He 
hoped that this title would secure him an ample and an indepen- 
dent authority." 

3 In common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequently 
omit the articles, which might be inserted with propriety in wri- 
ting, especially in a grave style. " At worst, time might be gained 
by this expedient." " At the worst," would have been better in 
this place." " Give me here John Baptist's head." There would 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

have been more dignity in saving, "John the Baptist's head:" or ; 
" The head of John the Baptist." 



1 he article the has sometimes a good effect in distinguishing a 
person by an epithet. "In the history of Henry the fourth, by 
Father Daniel, we are surprised at not finding him the great man." 
" I own I am often surprised that he should have treated so coldly, 
a man so much the gentleman." 

This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the French, 
for the pronoun possessive : as, " He looks him full in the face ;" 
that is, "in his face." "In his presence they were to strike the 
forehead on the ground ;" that is, " their foreheads." 

We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the 
same article, when the adjective, on account of any clause depend- 
ing upon it, is put after the substantive. " Of all the considerable 
governments among the Alps, a commonwealth is a constitution 
the most adapted of any to the poverty of those countries." " With 
such a specious title as that of blood, which with the multitude is 
always a claim, the strongest, and the most easily comprehended." 
" They are not the men in the nation the most difficult to be re- 
placed." 

RULE X. 

One substantive governs another, signifying a dif- 
ferent thing, in the possessive or genitive case : as, 
"My father's house ;" "Man's happiness;" "Vir- 
tue's reward." 

When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the 
first, there is no variation of case : as, " George, king of Great 
Britain, elector of Hanover," &c. ; " Pompey contended with 
Cassar, the greatest general of his time;" "Religion, the support 
of adversity, adorns prosperity." Nouns thus circumstanced are 
said to be in opposition to each other. The interposition of a rela- 
tive and verb will sometimes break the construction : as, " Pompey 
contended with Ca?sar, who was the greatest general of his time." 
Here the word general is in the nominative case, governed by note 
4, under Rule xi. 

The preposition of joined to a substantive, is not always equiva- 
lent to the possessive case. It is only so, when the expression can 
be converted into the regular form of the possessive case. We can 
say, "The reward of virtue," and " Virtue's reward :" but though 
it is proper to say, " A crown of gold," we cannot convert the 
expression into the possessive case, and say, " Gold's crown." 

Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the possessive 
case : as, "Every tree is known by its fruit ;" " Goodness brings 
its reward ;" " That desk is mine." 

The genitive Us is often improperly used for His or it is; as, 
" Its my book :" instead of " It is my book." 

The pronoun his, when detached from the noun to which it re- 
lates, is to be considered, not as a possessive pronoun, but as the 



Rule x.] SYNTAX. 119 

genitive case of the personal pronoun : as, " This composition is 
ftis." " Whose book is that ?" " His.' 3 If we used the noun 
itself, we should say, " This composition is John's." " Whose 
book is that ?'* " Eliza's." The position will be still more evident, 
when we consider that both the pronouns in the following sentences 
must have a similar construction* " Is it her or his honour that is 
tarnished ?" " It is not hers, but his." 

Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive case stands 
alone, the latter one by which it is governed being understood : 
as, " I called at the bookseller's," that is, " at the bookseller's shop." 

1 If several nouns come together in the genitive case, the apos- 
trophe with s is annexed to the last, and understood to the rest: as, 
"John and Eliza's books:" " This was my father, mother, and 
uncle's advice." But when any words intervene, perhaps on ac- 
count of the increased pause, the sign of the possessive should be 
annexed to each : as, " They are John's as well as Eliza's books;" 
"I had the physician's, the surgeon's, and the apothecary's assist- 
ance." 

2 In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, but the apos- 
trophe retained, in the same manner as in substantives of the plural 
number ending in s: as, " The wrath of Peieus' son." This seems 
not so allowable in prose ; which the following erroneous examples 
will demonstrate : " Moses' minister ;" " Phinehas' wife ;" "Fes- 
tus came into Felix' room." " These answers were made to the 
witness' questions." But in cases which would give too much of 
the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation, the 
omission takes place even in prose : as, " For righteousness' sake," 
" For conscience' sake." 

3 Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward 
between a genitive case, and the word which usually follows it : 
as, " She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent 
understanding." It ought to be, " the excellent understanding of 
the farmer, as she called him." 

4 When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an 
office, or of any expressions by which one part is descriptive or 
explanatory of the other, it may occasion some doubt to which of 
them the sign of the genitive case should be annexed ; or whether 
it should be subjoined to them both. Thu*, some would say ; "I 
left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller;" others, "at Smith the 
bookseller's ;" and perhaps others, " at Smith's the bookseller's." 
The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom ; 
and if the addition consists of two or more words, the case seems to 
be less dubious : as, " I left the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller 
and stationer." But as this subject requires a little further expla- 
nation to make it intelligible to the learners, we shall add a few 
observations tending to unfold its principles. 

A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent, 
as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires 
the genitive sign at or near the end of the phrase : as, " Whose 
prerogative is it? It is the king of Great Britain's ;" " That is the 
duke of Bridgewater's canal;" "The bishop of LandafPs excellent 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule x. 

book;" "The lord mayor of London's authority;" " The captain 
of the guard's house." 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, 
it seems also most agreeable to our idiom, to give the sign of the 
genitive a similar situation ; especially if the noun which governs 
the genitive be expressed : as, "The emperor Leopold's;" "Dio- 
nysius the tyrant's ;" " For David my servant's sake ;" " Give me 
John the Baptist's head ;" " Paul the apostle's advice." Eat when 
a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed, and when 
the latter part of the sentence is extended, it appears to be requi- 
site that the sign should be applied to the first genitive, and under- 
stood to the other ; as, " I reside at lord Stormont's, my old patron 
and benefactor ;" " Whose glory did he emulate ? He emulated 
Caesar's, the greatest general of antiquity." In the following sen- 
tences, it would be very awkward to place the sign, either at the 
end of each of the clauses, or at the end of the latter one alone : 
" These psalms are David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the 
Jewish people ;" " We staid a month at lord Lyttleton's, the orna- 
ment of his country, and the friend of every virtue." The sign of 
the genitive case may very properly be understood at the end of 
these members, an elipsis at the latter part of sentences being a 
common construction in our language : as the learner will see by 
one or two examples : "They wished to submit, but he did not ;" 
that is, " he did not wish to submit;" " He said it was their con- 
cern, but not his ;" that is, " not his concern." 

If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause 
only, we shall perceive that a resting place is wanted, and that the 
connecting circumstance is placed too remotely, to be either per- 
spicuous or agreeable : as, " Whose glory did he emulate ?" " He 
emulated Caesar, the greatest general of antiquity's ;" "These 
psalms are David, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish peo- 
ple's." It is much better to say, "This is Paul's advice, the 
Christian hero, and gr^at apostle of the gentiles," than, "This is 
Paul the Christian hero, and great apostle of the gentiles' advice." 
On the other hand, the application of the genitive sign to both or 
all of the nouns in apposition, would be generally harsh and dis- 
pleasing, and perhaps in some cases incorrect : as, " The emperors 
Leopold's ;" " King's George's ;" " Charles' the second's;" "The 
parcel was left at. Smith's the bookseller's and stationer's." The 
rules which we have endeavoured to elucidate, will prevent the 
inconvenience of both these modes of expression ; and they appear 
to be simple, perspicuous, and consistent with the idiom of the 
language. 

5 The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound ; so *:hat 
we daily make more use of the particle of to express the same re- 
lation. There is something awkward in the following sentences, 
in which this method has not been taken. " The general, in the 
army's name, published a declaration." " The commons' vote." 
" The lords' house." " Unless he is very ignorant cf the king* 
dom's condition." It were certainly better to say, " In the name 
of the army;" "The vote of the commons;" "The house or 



Rule x.] SYNTAX. 121 

lords ;" " The condition of the kingdom." It is also rather harsh 
to use two English genitives with the same substantive : as, 
" Whom he acquainted with the pope's and the king's pleasure." 
" The pleasure of the pope and the king/' would have been better. 
We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one 
another, and connected by the preposition of applied to each of 
them : as, " The severity of the distress of the son of the king, 
touched the nation ;" but this mode of expression is not to be re- 
commended. It would be better to say, " The severe distress of 
the king's son, touched the nation." We have a striking instance 
of this laborious mode of expression, in the following sentence : 
" Of some of the books o/each of these classes of literature, a cata- 
logue will be given at the end of the work." 

6 In some cases, we use both the genitive termination and the 
preposition of: as, " It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's." 
Sometimes indeed, unless we throw the sentence into another form, 
this method is absolutely necessary, in order to distinguish the 
sense, and to give the idea of property, strictly so called, which is 
the most important of the relations expressed by the genitive case : 
for the expressions, " This picture of my friend," and " This pic- 
ture of my friend's," suggest very different ideas. The latter only 
is that of property in the strictest sense. The idea would, doubt- 
less, be conveyed in a better manner, by saying, " This picture 
belonging to my friend." 

When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, is not 
necessary to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave style, 
it is generally omitted. Except to prevent ambiguity, it seems to 
be allowable only in cases which suppose the existence of a plu- 
rality of subjects of the same kind. In the expressions, " A subject 
of the emperor's ;" " A sentiment of my brother's ;" more than one 
subject, and one sentiment, are supposed to belong to the possessor. 
But when this plurality is neither intimated, nor necessarily sup- 
posed, the double genitive, except as before mentioned, should not 
be used : as*, " This house of the governor is very commodious ;" 
" The crown of the king was stolen ;" " That privilege of the 
scholar was never abused." (See page 41). But after all that 
can be said for this double genitive, as it is termed, some gram- 
marians think that it would be better to avoid the use of it alto- 
gether, and to give the sentiment another form of expression. 

7 When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning wirh a parti- 
ciple of the present tense, is used as one name, or to express one 
idea or circumstance, the noun on which it depends may be put in 
the genitive case ; thus, instead of saying, " What is the reason of 
this person dismissing his servants so hastily?" that is, "What is 
the reason of this person in dismissing his servant so hastily ?" we 
may say, and perhaps ought to say, " What is the reason of this 
person's dismissing of his servant so hastily?" Just as we say, 
"What is the reason of this person's hasty dismission of his ser- 
vant ?" So also, we say, " I remember it being reckoned a great 
exploit ;" or more properly, " I remember its being reckoned," 
&c. The following sentence is correct and proper : " Much will 

11 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xi. 

depend on the pupil's co?7iposing, but more on his reading fre- 
quently." It would not be accurate to say, "Much will depend on 
the pupil composing," &c. We also properly say; " This will be 
the effect of the pupil's composing frequently ; instead of, " Of the 
pupil composing frequently." 

RULE XI. 

Active verbs govern the objective case: as, "Truth 
enobles Aer;" "She comforts me;" " They support 
as $" "Virtue rewards her followers." 

In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, usually 
goes before the verb; and the objective case, denoting the object, 
lollows the verb active ; and it is the order that determines the case 
in nouns ; as, "Alexander conquered the Persians." But the pro- 
noun having a proper form for each of those cases, is sometimes, 
when it is in the objective case, placed before the verb; and, when 
it is in the nominative case, follows the object and verb ; as, 
" Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." 

This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper case 
and government to be neglected : as in the following instances : 
"Who should I esteem more than the wise and good?" "By the 
character of those who you choose for your friends, your own is 
likely to be formed." " Those are the persons who he thought 
true to his interests." " Who should I see the other day but my 
old friend." " Whosoever the court favours." In all these places 
it ought to be whom, the relative being governed in the objective 
case by the verbs " esteem, choose, thought," &c. "He, who under 
all proper circumstances, has the boldness to speak truth, choose 
for thy friend ;" It should be " him who," &c. 

Verbs neuter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pronouns. 
" He sleeps ; they muse" &c. are not transitive. They are, there- 
fore, not followed by an objective case, specifying the object of an 
action. But when this case, or an object of action, comes after 
such verbs, though it may carry the appearance of being governed 
by them, it is affected by a preposition or some other word under- 
stood : as, "He resided many years [that is, for or during many 
years] in that street ;" " He rode several miles [that is, for or 
though the space of several miles] on that day ;" " He lay an honr 
[that is, during an hour] in great torture." In the phrases, " To 
dream a dream," " To live a virtuous life," " To run a race," "To 
walk the horse," " To dance the child," the verbs certainly assume 
a transitive form, and may not, in these cases, be improperly de- 
nominated transitive verbs. 

1 Some writers, however, use certain neuter verb3 as if they 
were transitive, putting after them the objective case, agreeably to 
the French construction of reciprocal verbs ; but this custom is so 
foreign to the idiom of the English tongue, that it ought not to be 
adopted or imitated. The following are some instances of this 
practice. " Repenting him of his design." " The king soon found 
reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous enemies.*' 






rule xi.] SYNTAX. 128 

" The popular lords, did not fail to enlarge themselves on the sub- 
ject." "The nearer his successes approached him to the throne." 
"flee thee away into the land of Judah." " I think it by no means 
a fit and decent thing to vie charities," &c. "They have spent 
their whole time and pains to agree the sacred with the profane 
chronology." 

2 Active verbs are sometimes as improperly made neuter : as, 
" I must premise with three circumstances." " " Those that think 
to ingratiate with him by calumniating me." 

S The neuter verb is varied like the active ; but, having in some 
degree the nature of the passive, it admits, in man)' instances, 
of the passive form, retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly 
in such verbs as signify some sort of motion, or change of place, or 
condition: as, "I am come; I was gone; I am grown; I was 
fallen." The following examples, however, appear to be erroneous, 
in giving the neuter verbs a passive form, instead of an active one. 
" The rule of our holy religion, from which we are infinitely 
swerved." " The whole obligation of that law and covenant zvas 
also ceased." Whose number was now amounted to three hundred." 
M This mareschal, upon some discontent, was entered into a con- 
spiracy against his master." " At the end of a campaign, when 
half the men are deserted or killed." It should be, " have swerved, 
had ceased," &c. 

4 The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case 
after it, as that which 'next precedes it: "I" am he whom they 
invited;" "It may be (or might have been) he, but it caYmot be 
(or could not have been) /;" " It is impossible to be they;" "It 
seems to have been he, who conducted himself so wisely;" "It 
appeared to be she that transacted the business ;" " I understood it 
to be him ;" " I believe it have been them;" " We at first took it 
to be her ; but were afterward convinced that it was not she." "He 
is not the person who it seemed he was," " He is really the person 
who he appeared to be." " She is not now the woman whom they 
represented her to have been." " Whom do you fancy him to be ?" 
By these examples, it appears that this substantive verb has no 
government of case, but serves, in all its forms, as a conductor to 
the cases ; so that the two cases which, in the construction of the 
sentence, are the next before and after it, must always be alike. 
Perhaps this subject will be more intelligible to the learner, by ob- 
serving, that the words in the cases preceding and following the 
verb to be, may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus, in 
the sentence, " I understood it to be him," the words it and him are 
in apposition that is, " they refer to the same thing, and are in the 
same case." 

The following sentences contain deviations from the rule, and 
exhibit the pronoun in a wrong case: "It might have been him, 
but there is no proof it ;." " Though 1 was blamed, it could not 
have been me ;" " I saw one whom I took to be she ;" " She is the 
person who I understood it to have been ;" " Who do you think me 
to be ?" " Whom do men say that I am ?" " And whom think ye 
that I am ?" — See the Octavo "Grammar. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [rule xii. 

Passive verbs which signify naming, &c. have the same case 
before and after them : as, " He was called Caesar ; She was named 
Penelope ; Homer is styled the prince of poets ; James was created 
a dxtke ; The general was saluted emperor ; The professor was 
appointed tutor to the prince." 

5 The auxiliary let governs the objective case : as, " Let him 
beware;" "Let us judge candidly;" "Let them not presume;" 
" Let George study his lesson." 

RULE XII. 

One verb governs another that follows it, or depends 
upon it, in the infinite mood : as, " Cease to do evil: 
learn to do well ;" " We should be prepared to render 
an account of our actions." 

The preposition to, though generally used before the 
latter verb, is sometimes properly omitted : as, " I 
heard him say it;" instead of " to say it." 

The verbs which have commonly other verbs following them in 
the infinitive mood, without the sign to, are Bid, dare, need make, 
see, hear, feel ; and also, let, not used as an auxiliary ; and perhaps 
a few others : as, " I bade him do it :" " Ye dare not do it ;" " I 
saw him do it ;" " I heard him say it ;" " Thou lettest him go." 

1 In the following passages, the word to, the sign of the infinitive 
mood, where it is distinguished by Italic characters, is superfluous 
and improper. " I have observed some satirists to use," &c. "To 
see so many to make so little conscience of so great a sin." " It 
cannot but be a delightful spectacle to God and angels, to see a 
young person, besieged by powerful temptations on every side, to 
acquit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out against the 
most violent assaults ; to behold one in the prime and flower of his 
age, that is courted by pleasures and honours, by the devil, and all 
the bewitching vanities of the world, to reject all these, and to 
cleave steadfastly unto God." 

This mood has also been improperly used in the following places : 
" I am not like other men, to envy the talents I cannot reach." 
"Grammarians have denied, or at least doubted, them to be ge- 
nuine :" " That all our doings may be ordered by thy governance, 
to do always what is righteous in thy sight." 

The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, substantives, 
and participles : as, " He is eager to learn ;*' " She is worthy to 
be loved ;" " They have a desire to improve ;" " Endeavouring 
to persuade." 

The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substantive, 
expressing the action itself which the verb signifies, as the partici- 
ple has the nature of an adjective. Thus the infinite mood does 
the office of a substantive in different cases : in the nominative : 
as, "To play is pleasant :" in the objective: as, "Boys love to 



Rule xin. SYNTAX. 125 

play ;" "For to will is present with me ; but to perforin that which 
is good, 1 find not." 

The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used indepen- 
dently on the rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the con- 
junction that with the potential mood : as, " To confess the truth, 
I was in fault ;" " To begin with the first;" " To proceed ;" " To 
conclude ;" that is, " That 1 may confess," &c. 

RULE XIII. 

In the use of words and phrases which, in point of 
time, relate to each other, a due regard to that rela- 
tion should be observed. Instead of saying, " The 
Lord hath given, and the Lord hath- taken away;" 
we should say, " The Lord gave, and the Lord hath 
taken away." Instead of, " I remember the family 
more than twenty years;" it should be, u I have re- 
membered the family more than twenty years." 

It is not easy to give particular rules for the management of the 
moods and tenses of verbs with respect to one another, so that they 
may be proper and consistent. The best rule that can be given, is 
this very general one : " To observe what the sense necessarily 
requires." It may, however, be of use to give a few examples of 
irregular construction. " The last week I intended to have writ- 
ten" is a very common phrase ; the infinitive being in the past 
time, as well as the verb which it follows. But it is certainly 
wrong ; for how long soever it now is since I thought of writing, 
" to write" was then present to me, and must still be considered 
as present, when I bring back that time, and the thoughts of it. It 
ought, therefore, to be, " The last week I intended to write." The 
following sentences are also erroneous : " I cannot excuse the re- 
missness of those whose business it should have been, as it cer- 
tainly was their interest, to have interposed their good offices." 
" There were two circumstances which made it necessary for them 
to have lost no time." " History painters would have found it diffi- 
cult to have invented such a species of beings." They ought to be, 
" to interpose, to lose, to invent." " On the morrow, because he 
should have known the certainty, wherefore he was accused of the 
Jews, he loosed him." It ought to be, " because he would know" 
or rather, " being willing to know." 

"The blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might receive my 
sight." " If by any means I might attain unto the resurrection of 
the dead ;" " may" in both places, would have been better. " From 
his biblical knowledge, he appears to study the Scriptues with great 
attention ;" " to have studied," &c. " I feared that I should have 
lost it, before I arrived at the city ;" " should lose it." " I had 
rather walk ;" It should be, " I would rather walk." " It would 
have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it :" it should 
11* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xm 

be, "if I could have performed it;" or, "It would afford me no sa- 
tisfaction, if I could perform it." 

To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must recollect 
that, in the subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses 
often carry with them a future sense ; and that the auxiliaries should 
and would, in the imperfect times, are used to express the present 
and future as well as the past :. for which see page 59. 

1 It is proper further to observe, that verbs of the infinitive mood 
in the following form ; " to write," " to be writing," and " to be 
written," always denotes something contemporary with the time of 
the governing verb, or subsequent to it: but when verbs of that 
mood are expressed as follows ; " To have been writing," " to have 
written," and " to have been written," they always denote some- 
thing antecedent to the time of the governing verb. This remark 
is thought to be of importance ; for if duly attended to, it will, in 
most cases, be sufficient to direct us in the relative application of 
these tenses. 

The following sentence is properly and analogically expressed : 
" I found him better than I expected to find him." "Expected to 
have found him," is irreconcilable alike to grammar and to sense. 
Indeed, all verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, or command, 
must invariably be followed by the present, and not the perfect of 
the infinitive. Every person would perceive an error in this ex- 
pression ; " It is long since I commanded him to have done it :" 
Yet " expected to have found ," is no better. It is as clear that the 
finding must be posterior to the expectation, as that the obedience 
must be posterior to the command. 

In the sentence which follows, the verb is with propriety put in 
the perfect tense of the infinitive mood; "It would have afforded 
me great pleasure, as often as I reflected upon it, to have been the 
messenger of such intelligence." As the message, in this instance, 
was antecedent to the pleasure, and not contemporary with it, the 
verb expressive of the message must denote that antecedence, by 
being in the perfect of the infinitive. If the message and the plea- 
sure had been referred to as contemporary, the subsequent verb 
would with equal propriety, have been put in the present of the 
infinitive : as " It would have afforded me great pleasure, to be the 
messenger of such intelligence." In the former instance, the 
phrase in question is equivalent to these words ; "If I had been tho 
messenger ;" in the latter instance, to this expression ; " Being th6 
messsenger." For a further discussion of this subject, see the 
Eleventh edition of the Key to the Exercises, p. 60, and the Octavo 
Grammar, Rule xiii. 

It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to express the 
past time with the defective verb ought, the perfect of the infinitive 
must always be used: as, "He ought to have done it." When we 
use this verb, this is the only possible way to distinguish the past 
from the present. 

In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we can pro- 
duce the sentiments of eminent grammarians ; amongst whom are 
Lowth and Campbell. But there are some writers on grammar, 



Rule xiii.] SYNTAX. 127 

who strenuously maintain, that the governed verb in the infinitive 
Qught to be in the past tense, when the verb which governs it, is in 
the past time. Though this cannot be admitted in the instances 
which are controverted under this rule, or in any instances of a 
similar nature, yet there can be no doubt that, in many cases, in 
which the thing referred to preceded the governing verb, it would 
be proper and allowable. We may say; "From a conversation I 
once had with him, he appeared to have studied Homer with great 
care and judgment." It would be proper also to say, " From his 
conversation, he appears to have studied Homer with great care ana 
judgment;" "That unhappy man is supposed to have died by vio- 
lence." These examples are not only consistent with our rule, but 
they confirm and illustrate it. It is the tense of the governing verb 
only, that marks what is called the absolute time; the tense of the 
verb governed, marks solely its relative time with respect to the 
other. 

To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infinitive mood 
have no tense, no relative distinctions of present, past, and future, 
is inconsistent with just grammatical views of the subject. That 
these verbs associate with verbs in all the tenses, is no proof of 
their having no peculiar time of their own. Whatever period the 
governing verb assumes, whether present, past, or future, the go- 
verned verb in the infinitive always respects that period, and its 
time is calculated from it. Thus, the time of the infinitive may be 
before, after, or the same as, the time of the governing verb, accord- 
ing as the thing signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, 
after, or present with, the thing denoted by the governing verb. It 
is, therefore, with great propriety, that tenses are assigned to verbs 
of the infinitive mood. The point of time from which they are 
computed, is of no consequence ; since present, past, and future, 
are completely applicable to them. 

We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by remark- 
ing, that though it is often proper to use the perfect of the infinitive 
after the governing verb, yet there are particular cases, in which it 
w T ould be better to give the expression a different form. Thus, in- 
stead of saying, "I wish to have written to him sooner," "I then 
wished to have written to him sooner," " He will one day wish to 
have written sooner;" it would be more perspicuous and forcible, 
as well as more agreeable to the practice of good writers, to say; "I 
wish that I had written to him sooner," " I then wished that I had 
WTitten to him sooner," " He will one day wish that he had written 
sooner." Should the justness of these strictures be admitted, there 
would still be numerous occasions for the use of the past infinitive; 
as we may perceive by a few examples. " It would ever after- 
wards have been a source of pleasure to have found him wise and 
virtuous." " To have deferred his repentance longer, would have 
disqualified him for repenting at all." " They w T ill then see, that 
to have faithfully performed their duty, would have been theii 
greatest consolation."* 

♦ See Key to the English Exercises, Elcvmth Edit. Rule xiii. The ftote 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xiv, 

RULE XIV. 

Participles have the same government as the verbs 
have from which they are derived : as, "I am weary 
with hearing him;" " She is instructing it? ;" 4 *The 
tutor is admonishing Charles." 

1 Participles are sometimes governed by the article ; for the pre- 
sent participle, with the definite article the before it, becomes a sub- 
stantive, and must have the preposition of after it : as, "These are 
the rules of grammar, by the observing of which, you may avoid 
mistakes." It would not be proper to say, " by the observing 
which ;" nor, " by observing of which ;" but the phrase, without 
either article or preposition, would be right: as, "by observing 
which. " The article a or an, has the same effect : as, " This was a 
betraying of the trust reposed in him." 

This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, and 
form as plain a principle as any on which it is founded : namely, that 
a word which has the article before it, and the possessive preposition 
of after it, must be a noun ; and, if a noun, it ought to follow the con- 
struction of a noun, and not to have the regimen of a verb. It is the 
participial termination of this sort of words that is apt to deceive us, 
and make us treat them as if they were of an amphibious species, 
partly nouns and partly verbs. 

The following are a few examples of the violation of. this rule. 
"He was sent to prepare the way by preaching of repentance;" it 
ought to be, " by the preaching of repentance;" or, " by preaching 
repentance." " By the continual mortifying our corrupt affections;" 
it should be, "by the continual mortifying of" or, " by continually 
mortifying our corrupt affections." "They laid out themselves to- 
wards the advancing and promoting the good of it;" "towards ad- 
vancing and promoting the good." " It is an overvaluing ourselves, 
\o reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities," "it 
is overvaluing ourselves," or, " an overvaluing of ourselves." "Keep- 
ing of one day in seven," &c. it ought to be, "the keeping of one 
day ;" or, " keeping one day." 

A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle and 
the possessive preposition follows it, will not, in every instance, con- 
vey the same meaning as would be conveyed by the participle with- 
out the article and preposition. " He expressed the pleasure he had 
in the hearing of the philosopher," is capable of a different sense 
from, " He expressed the pleasure he had in hearing the philoso- 
pher." When, therefore, we wish, for the sake of harmony or va- 
riety, to substitute one of these phraseologies for the other, we should 
previously consider wdiether they are perfectly similar in the senti- 
ments they convey. 

2 The same observations which have been made respecting the 
effect of the article and participle, appear to be applicable to the pro- 
noun and participle, w 7 hen they are similarly associated: as, "Much 
depends on their observing of the rule, and error will be the conse- 
quence of their neglecting q/*it," instead of "their observing the rule, 
and their neglecting it." We shail perceive this more clearly, if we 
substitute a noun for the pronoun : as, " Much depends upon Tyro's 
observing of the rule," &c. But, as this construction sounds rather 
harshly, it would, in general be better to express the sentiment in 



Rule xv.] SYNTAX. * ■ 129 

the following:, or some other form : " Much depends on the rule's 
being observed ; and error will be the consequence of its being ne- 
glected:" or — "on observing the rule; and — of neglecting it." This 
remark may be applied to several other modes of expression to be 
found in this work; which, though they are contended for as strictly 
correct, are not always the most eligible, on account of their unplea- 
sant sound. See pages, 40, 56, 119 — 120. 

We sometimes meet with expressions like the following: " In- 
forming of of his sentences, he was very exact;" "From calling of 
names, he proceeded to blows." But this is incorrect language ; for 
prepositions do not, like articles and pronouns, convert the participle 
itself into the nature of a substantive , as we have shown above in 
the phrase, " By observing which.'-' And yet the participle with its 
adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive phrase in the objective 
case, governed by the preposition or verb, expressed or understood : 
as, " By promising much, and performing but little, we become des- 
picable." " He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely." 

3 As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are sometimes 
different in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscri- 
minately used. It is frequently said, " He begun," for " he began ;" 
" he run," lor " he ran ;" " He drunk," for " he drank ;" the parti- 
ciple being here used instead of the imperfect tense : and much more 
frequently the imperfect tense instead of the participle : as, " I had 
wrote," for " I had written :" "I was chose," for, " I was chosen ;" 
" I have eat," for, "I have eaten." "His words were interwove with 
sighs;" " were interwoven" " He would have spoke ;" " spoken." 
"He hath bore witnses to his faithful servants;" "borne" "By 
this means he over-run his guide ;" " over-ran" " The sun has 
rose;" "risen." "His constitution has been greatly shook, but his 
mind is too strong to be shook by such causes ;" " shaken" in both 
places. "They were verses wrote on glass ;" "written" "Philo- 
sophers have^ often mistook the source of true happiness :" it ought 
to be " mistaken." 

The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted by 
changing ed into t ; as, " In good behaviour, he is not surpast by any 
pupil of the school." " She was much distrest." They ought to be 
" surpassed" " distressed" 

RULE XV. 

Adverbs, though they have no government of case, 
tense, &c. require an appropriate situation in the sen- 
tence, viz. for the most part, before adjectives, after 
verbs active or neuter, and frequently between the 
auxiliary and the verb: as, "He made a very sensible 
discourse; he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly, and 
was attentively heard by the whole assembly." 

A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve to 
illustrate the rule. " He must not expect to find study agreeable 
always ;" " always agreeable." " We always find them ready when 
we want them ;" " we find them always ready," &c. " Dissertations 
on the prophecies which have remarkably been fulfilled;" "which 
have been remarkably." " Instead of looking contemptuously down 
on the crooked in mind or in body, we should look. up thankfully to 



130 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule vx 

God, who hath made us better;" "instead of looking down contemp- 
tuously, &c. we should thankfully look up" 8*c, "If thou art blessed 
naturally with a good memory, continually exercise it;" "naturally 
blessed" &c. " exercise it continually" 

Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the verb, or 
at some distance after it; sometimes between the two auxiliaries; 
and sometimes after them both ; as in the following examples. "Vice 
always creeps by degrees, and insensibly twines around us those con- 
cealed fetters, by which we are at last completely bound." "He 
encouraged the English Barons to carry their opposition farther." 
" They compelled him to declare that he would abjure the realm for 
ever ;" instead of, " to carry farther their opposition ;" and " to abjure 
for ever the realm." " He has generally been reckoned an honest 
man." " The book may always be had at such a place ;" in preference 
to " has been generally ;" and " maybe always." " These rules will 
be clearly understood, after they have been diligently studied," are 
preferable to, "These rules will clearly be understood, after they 
have diligently been studied." 

From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears that no 
exact and determinate rule can be given for the placing of adverbs, 
on all occasions. TJie general rule may be of considerable use ; but 
the easy flow and perspicuity of the phrase, are the things which 
ought to be chiefly regarded. 

The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that 
adds nothing to the sense ; in which case it precedes the verb and the 
nominative noun: as, "There is a person at the door;" "There are 
some thieves in the house ;" which would be as well, or better, ex- 
pressed by saying, " A person is at the door;" " Some thieves are in 
the house." Sometimes, it is made use of to give a small degree of 
emphasis to the sentence : as, " There was a man sent from God, 
whose name was John." When it is applied in its strict sense, it 
principally follows the verb and the nominative case: as, "The 
man stands there." 

1 The adverb never generally precedes the verb : as, "1 never was 
there ;" " He never comes at a proper time." When an auxiliary is 
used, it is placed indifferently, either before or after this adverb : as, 
"He was never seen (or never was seen) to laugh from that time." 

Never seems to be improperly used in the following passages. 
"Ask me never so much dowry and gift." "If I make my hands 
never so clean " " Charm he never so wisely." The word " ever" 
would be more suitable to the sense. 

2 In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place where, is 
often used instead of the pronoun relative and a preposition. " They 
framed a protestation, where they repeated all their former claims ;" 
i.e. "in which they repeated." " The king was still determined to 
run forwards, in the same course where he was already, by his pre- 
cipitate career, too fatally advanced;" i. e. "in which he was." But 
it would be better to avoid this mode of expression. 

The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a preposition; for 
they signify, " from this place, from that place, from what place." 
It seems, therefore, strictly speaking, to be improper to join a prepo- 
sition with them, because it is superfluous : as, " This is the levia- 
than, from whence the wits of our age are said to borrow their 
weapons;" "An ancient author prophesies from hence." > But the 
origin of these words is little attended to, and the preposition from 



Rvle xvi.] SYNTAX. 181 

so often used in construction with them, that the omission of it, ii 
many cases, would seem stiff', and be disagreeable. 

The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly applied t 
verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, whither 
as, " He came here hastily;" "They rode there with speed." The) 
should be, " He came hither;" " They rode thither," &c. 

3 We have some examples of adverbs being used for substantives 
"In 1687, he erected it into a community of regulars, since when, ft 
nas begun to increase in those countries as a religious order;" i. e 
"since which time." "A little while and I shall not see you ;" i. e. 
" a short time" " It is worth their while ;" i. e. "it deserves their 
time and pains." But this use of the word rather suits familiar than 
grave style. The same may be said of the phrase, "To do a thing 
anyhow;" i. e. "in any manner;" or, "somehow;" i. e. in some 
manner." " Somehow, worthy as these people are, they are under 
the influence of prejudice." 

RULE xvr. 

Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or 
are equivalent to an affirmative: as, "Nor did they 
not perceive him;" that is, " they did perceive him." 
" His language, though inelegant, is not ungram- 
maiical;" that is, " it is grammatical." 

It is better to express an affirmation, by a regular affirmative, than 
by two separate negatives, as in the former sentence : but when one 
of the negatives is joined to another word, as in the latter sentence, 
the two negatives form a pleasing and delicate variety of expression, 

Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead of 
one : as in the following instances : " I never did repent of doing 
gooa, nor shall not now;" " nor shall I now" "Never no imitator 
grew up to his author;" "never did any" &c. "I cannot by no 
means allow him what his argument must prove ;" " I cannot by 
any means," &c. or, " I can by no means" " Nor let no comforter 
approach me ;" " nor let any comforter," &c. " Nor is danger ever 
apprehended in such a government, no more than we commonly ap- 
prehend danger from thunder or earthquakes :" it should be, " any 
more." " Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not 
born in republics." " Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more 
than Raphael, was born in a republic." 

RULE XVII. 

Prepositions govern the objective case : as, "I have 
heard a good character of her ;" "From him that is 
needy turn not away :" " A word to the wise is suffi- 
cient /br them ;" "We may be good and happy with* 
out riches." 

The following are examples of the nominative case being used 
instead of the objective. "Who servest thou under?" "Who do 
you speak to ?" " We are still much at a loss who civil power be- 
longs to :' " Who dost thou ask for ?" " Associate not with those 



II.l 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rule xvii.] 

who none can speak well of." In all these places it ought to be 
"whom." See Note 1. 

The prepositions to and for are often understood chiefly before the 
pronouns: as, " Give me the book;" "Get me some paper;" that 
is, " to me ; for me." M Wo is me ;" i. e. " to me." " He was ban- 
ished England ;" i. e. "from England." 

1 The preposition is often separated from the relative which it 
governs ; as, " Whom wilt thou give it to ?" instead of, "To whom 
wilt thou give it ?" " He is an author whom I am much delighted 
with ," " The world is too polite to shock authors with a truth, which 
generally their booksellers are the first that inform them of." This 
is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined ; it prevails in 
common conversation, and suits very well with the familiar style in 
writing: but the placing of the preposition before the relative, is 
more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better 
with the solemn and elevated style. 

2 Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to 
connect different prepositions with the same noun : as, " To suppose 
the zodiac and planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to, them- 
selves." This, whether in the familiar or the solemn style, is always 
inelegant, and should generally be avoided. In forms o£ law, and the 
like, where fulness and exactness of expression must take place of 
every other consideration, it may be admitted. 

3 Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed by 
different prepositions, though in conjunction with the same verb or 
adjective. Thus we say, " to converse with a person, upon a sub- 
ject, in a house, &,c." We also say, " We are disappointed of a 
thing," when we cannot get it, " and disappointed in it," when we 
have it, a?id find it does not answ T er our expectations. But two dif- 
ferent prepositions must be improper in the same construction, and 
in the same sentence : as, "The combat between thirty French 
against twenty English." 

In some cases, it is difficult to say, to which of two prepositions 
the preference is to be given, as both are used promiscuously, and - 
custom has not decided in favour of either of then*. We say, " Ex- 
pert at," and " expert in a thing." " Expert at finding a remedy for 
his mistakes ;" "Expert in deception." 

When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the 
same that are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are de- 
rived : as, "A compliance with, " to comply with;" "A disposition 
to tyranny," " disposed to tyrannize." 

4 As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of great 
importance, we shall select a considerable number of examples of 
impropriety, in the application of this part of speech. 

' 1st, With respect to the preposition of—" He is resolved of going to 
the Persian court;" "on going," &c. " He was totally dependent 
of the Papal crown ;" " on the Papal," &c. " To call of a person," 
and "to wait of him," " on& person," &c. "He was eager of re- 
commending it to his fellow-citizens," "in recommending," &c 
Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted, after worthy: as, 
" It is worthy observation," or " of observation." But it would have 
been better omitted in the following sentences. "The emu|ation, 
who should serve their country best, no longer subsists amOng'-them, 
but of who should obtain the most lucrative command." "The rain 
nath been falling of a long time ;" " falling a long time." " It is 
situation chiefly which decides of the fortune and characters of men;" 



Rule xvii.] SYNTAX. 133 

"derides the fortune," or, "concerning the fortune." "He found 
the greatest difficulty of writing;" "in writing." " It might have 
given me a greater taste of its antiquities." A taste of a thing im- 
plies actual enjoyment of it ; but a taste for it, implies only a capa- 
city for enjoyment. " This had a much greater share of inciting 
nim, than any regard after his father's commands ;" " share in in- 
citing," and " regard to his father's," &c. 

2d, With respect to the prepositions to and for. — '* You have be- 
stowed your favours to the most deserving persons;" "upon the 
most deserving," &c. " He accused the ministers for betraying the 
Dutch :" " of having betrayed." " His abhorrence to that supersti- 
tious figure;" "of that," &c. "A great change to the better ;" "for 
the better." "Your prejudice to my cause;" "against." "The 
English were very different people then to what they are at present;" 
"from what," &c. "In compliance to the declaration ;" "with" 
&c. "It is more than they thought for ;" " thought of." " There 
is no need for it ;" " of it." "For is superfluous in the phrase, 
" More than he knows for." " No discouragement for the authors 
to proceed;" "to the authors," &c. "It was perfectly in compli- 
ance to some persons;" "with." "The wisest princes need not 
think it any diminution to their greatness, or derogation to their suf- 
ficiency, to rely upon counsel;" "diminution of" and "derogation 
from." 

3d, With respect to the prepositions wiihiind upon. — " Reconciling 
himself with the king." " Those things which have the greatest 
resemblance with each other, frequently differ the most." " That 
such rejection should be consonant with our common nature." 
" Conformable with," &c. " The history of Peter is agreeable with 
the sacred texts." In all the above instances, it should be, "to" 
instead of "with." "It is a use that perhaps I should not have 
thought on ;" " thought of." " A greater quantity may be taken 
from the heap, without making any sensible alteration upon it ;" "in 
it." " Intrusted to persons on whom the parliament could confide ;" 
"in w T hom." "He was made much on at Argos ;" "much of" 
"If policy can prevail upon force ;" "over force." " I do likewise 
dissent with the examiner ;" "from." 

4th, With respect to the prepositions in, from, &c. — " They should 
be informed in some parts of his character ;" " about" or, " con- 
cerning" "Upon such occasions as fell into their cognizance;" 
"under." "That variety of factions into which we are still en- 
gaged ;" " in which." " To restore myself into the favour ;" " to the 
favour." "Could he have profited from repeated experiences;" 
" by." From seems to be superfluous after forbear : as, " He could 
not forbear from appointing the pope," &c. "A strict observance 
after times and fashions ;" " of times." " The character which w r e 
may now value ourselves by drawing;" "upon drawing." "Neither 
of them shall make me swerve out of the path ;" "from the path." 
"Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel ;" it 
ought to be, " which strain out a gnat, or take a gnat out of the liquor 
by straining it." The impropriety of the preposition has wholly 
destroyed the meaning of the phrase. 

The preposition among generally implies a numberof things. It 
cannot be properly used in conjunction with the word every, which 
is in the singular number : as, " Which is found among every spe- 
cies of liberty ;" " The opinion seems to gain ground among every 
body." 

12 



1S4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [rule xvift 

5 The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when 
they follow verbs and participles of motion: as, " I went to Lon- 
don ;" " I am going to town." But the preposition at is generally 
used after the., neuter verb to be : as, " I have been at London ;" " I 
was ai the place appointed;" "I shall be at Paris." We likewise 
say : " He touched, arrived at any place." The preposition in is set 
before countries, cities, and large towns: as, "He Jives in France, 
in London, or in Birmingham." But before villages, single houses, 
and cities which are in distant countries, at is used; as, "He lives 
at Hackney ;" " He resides at Montpelier." 

It is a matter of indifference with respect to the pronoun one 
another, whether the preposition of be placed between the two parts 
of it, or before them both. We may say, "They were jealous oi 
one another;" or, " They were jealous one of another;" but perhaps 
the former is better. 

Participles are frequently used as prepositions : as, excepting, 
respecting, touching, concerning, according. " They were all in 
fault except or excepting him." 

RULE XVIII. 

Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of 
verbs and cases of nouns and pronouns: as, "Can- 
dour is to be approved and practised :" "If thou 
sincerely desire, and earnestly pursue virtue, she will 
assuredly be found by thee, and prove a rich reward :" 
"The master taught her and me to write:" "He 
and she were school-fellows."'* 

A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further 
display its utility " If he prefer a virtuous life, and is sincere in his 
professions, he "will succeed ;" " if he prefers" " To deride the 
miseries of the unhappy, is inhuman ; and wanting compassion to- 
wards them, is unchristian ;" " and to want compassion." " The 
parliament addressed the king, and has been prorogued the same 
day;" "and ivas prorogued." " His wealth and him bid adieu to 
each other;" "zndhe." "He entreated us, my comrade and I, to 
live harmoniously ;" " comrade and me." "My sister and her were 
on good terms ;" " and she." " We often overlook the blessings 
which are in our possession, and are searching after those which are 
out of our reach :" it ought to be, "and search after." 

1 Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect different 
moods and tenses of verbs : but in these instances the nominative 
must generally, if not always, be repeated, which is not necessary, 
though it may be done, under the construction to which the rule 
refers. We may say, " He lives temperately, and he should live 
temperately;" "He may return, but he will not continue " "She 
was proud, though she is now humble:" but it is obvious, that in 
such cases, the nominative ought to be repeated ; and that, by this 
means, the latter^HfPfhbers of these sentences are rendered not so 
strictly dependent on the preceding, as those are which come under 
the rule. When, in the progress of a sentence, we pass from the 

* This rule refers only to nouns and pronouns, which have the same bearing 
cr relation; with regard to other parts of the sentence. 



rule xix.] SYNTAX. 135 

affirmative to the negative form, or from the negative to the affirma- 
tive, the subject or nominative is always resumed : as, " He is rich, 
but he is not respectable." " He is not rich, but he is respectable." 
There appears to be, in general, equal reason lor repeating the nomi- 
native, and resuming the subject, when the course oi'the sentence is 
diverted by a change oi'the mood or tense. The following sentences 
may therefore be improved. " Anger glances into the breast of a 
wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools;" "but 1'esis 
only ;" or, " but it will rest only." " Virtue is praised by many; and 
would be desired also, if her worth were really known ;'' " and she 
would." "The world begins to recede, and will soon disappear ;" 
"and it will." See the Octavo Grammar, Rule xviii. 

RULE XIX. 

Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the 
subjunctive mood, after them. It is a general rule, 
that when something contingent or doubtful is implied, 
the subjunctive ought to be used : as, " If I were to 
write, he would not regard it:' 9 " He will not be 
pardoned, unless he repent." 

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute 
nature require the indicative mood. *'Jls virtue ad- 
vances, so vice recedes:" " He is healthy, because 
he is temperate.-' 

The conjunctions, if, though, unless, except, whether, Sec. generally 
require the subjunctive mood after them : as, "If thou be afflicted, 
repine not :" " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him ;" " He 
.cannot be clean, unless he wash himself;" "No power, except it 
'were given from above ;" " Whether it were I or they, so we preach." 
But even these conjunctions, when the sentence does not imply 
doubt, admit of the indicative: as, "Though he is poor, he is con- 
tented/' — See Subjunctive Mood, page 54 , and pages 137, 138. 

The following example may, in some measure, serve to illustrate 
the distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods. 
"Though he were divinely inspired, and spoke therefore as the ora- 
cles of God, with supreme authority, though he were endued with 
supernatural powers, and could, therefore, have confirmed the truth 
of what he uttered, by miracles ; yet, in compliance with the way in 
which human nature and reasonable creatures are usually wrought 
upon, he reasoned." That our Saviour w T as divinely inspired, and 
endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken 
for granted, as not admitting the least doubt; they would therefore 
have been better expressed in the indicative mood : "Though he was 
divinely inspired ; though he was endued with supernatural powers," 
The subjunctive is used in the like improper manner in the follow- 
ing example : "Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience, by 
the things which he suffered." But, in a similar passage, the indica- 
tive, with great propriety, is employed to the same purpose; " T 1 hough 
he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor." 

1 Lest, and that, annexed to a command preceding, necessarily 
require the subjunctive mood : as, " Love not sleep, lest thou come to 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xix. 

poverty :" " Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee ;" " Take heed 
that thou speak not to Jacob." 

If with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the 
subjunctive mood: as, "If he do bat touch the hills, they shall 
spoke ;" " If he be but discrete, he will succeed." But the indica- 
tive ought to be used, on this occasion, when future time is not sig- 
nified : as, "If, in this expression, he does to jest, no offence should 
be taken ;" " If she is but sincere, I am happy." The same dis- 
tinction applies to the following forms of expression : " If he do sub- 
mit, it will be from necessity ;" " Though he does submit, he is 
not convinced ;" " If thou do not reward this service, he will be dis- 
couraged ;" "If thou dost heartily forgive him, endeavour to forget 
the offence." 

2 In the following instances, the conjunction thai, expressed or 
understood, seems to be improperly accompanied with the subjunc- 
tive mood. " So much she dreaded his tyranny, thai the fate of her 
friend she dare not lament." "He reasoned so artfully that his 
friends would listen, and think [that] he were not wrong." 

3 The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the 
subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circum- 
stances, seems to be a great impropriety : as in these instances, 
"If there be but one body of legislators, it is no better than a tyranny ; 
if there are only two, there will want a casting voice." "//a man 
have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone astray," &c. 

4 Almost all the irregularities, in the construction of any language, 
have arisen from the ellipsis of some v/ords, which were originally 
inserted in the sentence, and made it regular; and it is probable, 
that this has generally been the case with respect to the conjunctive 
form of words, now in use ; which will appear from the following 
examples: "We shall overtake him though he run;" that is, 
"though he should run;" "Unless he act prudently, he will not 
accomplish his purpose ;'' that is, " unless he shall act prudently." 
"If he succeed and obtain his end, he will not be the happier for it ;" 
that is, "If he should succeed and should obtain his end." These 
remarks and examples are designed to show the original of many of 
our present conjunctive forms of expression; and to enable the stu- 
dent to examine the propriety of using them, by tracing the words in 
question to their proper origin and ancient connexions. But it is 
necessary to be more particular on this subject, and therefore we 
shall add a few observations respecting it. 

That part of the verb which grammarians call the present tense of 
the subjunctive mood, has a future signification. This is effected by 
varying the terminations of the second and third persons singular of 
the indicative ; as will be evident from the following examples : "If 
thou prosper, thou shouldst be thankful;" "Unless he study more 
closely, he will never be learned." Some writers however, would 
express these sentiments without those variations ; " If thou pros- 
perest" &c. " Unless he studies," &c. : and as there is great diver- 
sity of practice in this point, it is proper to offer the learners a few 
remarks, to assist them in distinguishing the right application of 
these different forms of expression. It may be considered as a rule, 
that the changes of termination are necessary, when these two cir- 
cumstances concur: 1st, When the subject is of a dubious and con- 
tingent nature; and 2d, When the verb has a reference to future 
time. In the following sentences, both these circumstances will be 
found to unite: "If thou injure another, thou wilt hurt thyself;" 



Rule xix.] SYNTAX. 137 

* He has a hard heart ; and if he continue impenitent, he must suf- 
fer;" " He will maintain his principles, though he lose his estate :" 
" Whether he succeed or not, his intention is laudable ;" " If he be 
not prosperous, he will not repine ; " If a man smite his servant, and 
he die" &c. Exod. xxi, 20. In all these examples, the things signified 
by the verbs are uncertain, and refer to future time. But in the in- 
stances which follows future time is not referred to ; and therefore a 
different construction takes place ; " If thou livest virtuously, thou art 
happy ;" " Unless he means what he says, he is doubly faithless ;" "If 
he allows the excellence of virtue, he does not regard her precepts ;" 
"Though he sec ms to be simple arid artless, he has deceived us;" 
" Whether virtue is better than rank or wealth, admits not of any dis- 
pute;*' " If thou believest with all thy heart, thou inayst," &c. Acts viii. 
37. — There are many sentences, introduced by conjunctions, in which 
neither contingency nor futurity is denoted : as, " Though he excels 
her in knowledge, she far exceeds him in virtue." " I have no doubt 
of his principles : but if he believes the truths of religion, he does not 
act according to them. 5 ' 

That both the circumstances of contingency and futurity are neces- 
sary, as tests of the propriety of altering the terminations, will be 
evident, by inspecting the following examples; which show that 
there are instances in which neither of the circumstances alone im- 
plies the other. In the three examples following, contingency is 
denoted, but not futurity. "If he thinks as he speaks, he may safely 
be trusted." " If he is now disposed to it, I will perform the opera- 
tion." "He acts uprightly, unless he deceives me." In the follow- 
ing sentences, futurity is signified, but not contingency. "As soon 
as the sun sets it will be cooler." "As the autumn advances, these 
birds will gradually emigrate." 

It appears, from the tenor of the examples adduced, that the rules 
above mentioned may be extended to assert, that in cases wherein 
contingency and futurity do not concur, it is not proper to turn the 
verb from its signification of present time, nor to vary its form or 
termination. The verb would then be in the indicative mood, what- 
ever conjunctions might attend it. — If these rules, which seem to 
form the true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative 
moods in this tense, were adopted and established in practice, we 
snould have, on this point, a principle of decision simple and precise, 
and readily applicabie to every case that might occur. — It will, 
doubtless, sometimes happen, that, on this occasion, as well as on 
many other occasions, a strict adherence to grammatical rules, would 
render the language stiff and formal : but when cases of this sort 
occur, it is better to give the expression a different turn, than to 
violate grammar for the sake of ease, or even of elegance. See Rule 
14. Note 2. 

5 On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses of the 
subjunctive mood, it seems proper to make a few observations. Some 
writers express themselves in the perfect tense as follows : " If thou 
have determined, we must submit :" " Unless he have consented, the 
writing will be void :" but we believe that few authors of critical 
sagacity write in this manner. The proper form seems to be, "If 
thou hast determined ; unless he has consented," &c. conformably 
to what we generally meet with in the Bible * " I have surnamed 
thee, though thou hast not known me." Isaiah xlv. 4, 5. " What is 
the hope of the hypocrite, though he hath gained." &c. Job xwii. 
8. See also Jcis xxviii, 4. 
12' 



133 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rulf 

6 In the pluperfect and futi ire tenses, we sometimes meet with 
such 'expressions as these; " If thou had applied thyself diligently, 
thou wouldst have reaped the advantage ;" " Unless thou shall speak 
the whole truth, we cannot determine;" " If thou will undertake the 
business, there is little doubt of success." This mode of expressing 
the auxiliaries does not appear to be warranted by the general prac- 
tice of correct writers. They should be hadst, shall, and wilt : and 
we find them used in this form, in the sacred Scriptures. 

" If thou hadst known," &c. Luke xix. 47. " If thou hadst been 
here," &c, John xi, 21. "If thou wilt, thou canst make me clean," 
Matt, viii, 2. See also, 2 Sam. ii. 27. Mali. xvii. 4. 

7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the sub- 
junctive mood, is also very frequently varied in its termination: as, 
" If thou loved him truly, thou wouldst obey him;" "Though thou 
did conform, thou hast gained nothing by it." This variation, how- 
ever, appears to be improper. Our present version of the Scriptures, 
which we again refer to, as a good grammatical authority in points 
of this nature, decides against it. " If thou kneivest the gift," &,c. 
John iv. 10. " If thou didst receive it, why dost thou glory ?" &c. 1 
Cor. iv. 7. See also Ban. v. 22. But it is proper to remark, that the 
form of the verb to be, when used subjunctively in the imperfect 
tense, is indeed very considerably and properly varied from that 
which it has in the imperfect of the indicative mood : as the learner 
will perceive by turning to the conjugation of that verb. 

8 It may not be superfluous, also to observe, that the auxiliaries of 
the potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, do not change 
the termination of the second person singular. We properly say, "If 
thou mayst or canst go;" "Though thou mightst live;" "Unless 
thou couidst read ;" " If thou wouldst learn;" and not " If thou may 
or can go," &c. It is sufficient, on this point, to adduce the authori- 
ties of Johnson and Lowth ; "If thou shouldst go;" Johnson. "If 
thou mayst, mightst, or couidst love ;" Lowth. Some authors think, 
that when that expresses the motive or end, the termination of these 
auxiliaries should be varied: as, "I advise thee, that thou may be- 
ware ;" " He checked thee, that that should not presume :" but there 
does not appear to be any ground for this exception. If the expres- 
sion of " condition, doubt, contingency," &c. does not warrant a 
change in the form of these auxiliaries, why should they have it, 
when a motive or end is expressed ? The translators of the Scrip- 
tures do not appear to have made the distinction contended for. 
"Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayst be their king," Neh. vi. 6. 
"There is forgiveness with thee, that thou mayst be feared." Psalm 
cxxx. 4. 

From the preceding observations under this rule, it appears, that 
with respect to what is termed the present tense of any verb, when 
the circumstances of contingency and futurity concur, it is proper to 
vary the terminations of the second and third persons singular ; that 
without the concurrence of those circumstances, the terminations 
should not be altered ; and that the verb and the auxiliaries of the 
three past tenses, and the auxiliaries of the first future, undergo no 
no alterations whatever : except the imperfect of the verb to be, 
which, in cases denoting contingency, is varied in all the persons of 
the singular number. See page 64. The Note. 

After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, it will be 
natural for the student to inquire, what is the extent of the subjunc- 



>- I xix.] SYNTAX 135 

tive mood ? Some grammarians thi k it extends only to what is 
called the present tense of verbs generally, under the circumstances 
of contingency and futurity; and to the imperfect tense of the verb 
to be, when it denotes contingency, 8tc. : because in these tenses 
only, the form of the verb admits of variation ; and they suppose that 
it is variation merely which constitutes the distinction of moods. It 
is the opinion of other grammarians, (in which opinion we concur,) 
that, besides the two cases just mentioned, all verbs in the three past, 
and the two future tenses, are in the subjunctive mood, when they 
denote contingency or uncertainty, though they have not any change 
of termination ; and that, when contingency is not signified, the verb, 
through all these five tenses, belongs to the indicative mood, what- 
ever conjunction may attend it. They think, that the definition and 
nature of the subjunctive mood, have no reference to change of ter- 
mination, but that they refer merely to the manner of the being, 
action, or passion', signified by the verb; and that the subjunctive 
mood may as properly exist without a variation of the verb, as the 
infinitive mood, which has no terminations different from those of 
the indicative. The decision of this point may not, by some gram- 
marians, be thought of much consequence. But the rules which 
ascertain the propriety of varying, or not varying, the terminations 
of the verb, will certainly be deemed important. These rules may 
be well observed, without a uniformity of sentiment respecting the 
nature and limits of the subjunctive mood. For further remarks on 
the subject, see pages 56, 59—61, 72—74, 77—78.* 

9 Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions belonging 
to them, either expressed or understood : as, 

1st, Though,— yet, nevertheless : as, M Though he was rich, yet for 
our sakes he became poor." " Though powerful, he was meek." 

2d, Whether — or: as, " Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell." 

3d, — Either — or: as, "I will either send it, or bring it myself." 

4th, Neither — nor: as, " Neither he nor I am able to compass it." 

5th, As — as: expressing a comparison of equality : as, " She is as 
amiable as her sister; and as much respected." 

6th, As — so: expressing a comparison of equality: as, "As the 
stars, so shall thy seed be." 

7th, As — so: expressing a comparison of quality : as, "As the one 
dieth, so dieth the other." " As he reads, they read." 

8th, So — as: with a verb expressing a comparison of quality: as, 
"To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary." 

9th, So — as • with a negative and an adjective expressing a com- 

* We have stated, for the student's information, the different opinions of 
grammarians, respecting the English Subjunctive Mood : First, that which sup- 
poses thpre is no such mood in our language ; Secondly, that which extends it 
no farther than the variations of the verb extend ; Thirdly, that which we have 
adopted, and explained at large; and which, in general, corresponds with the 
views of the most approved writers on English Grammar. We may add a 
Fourth opinion ; which appeals to possess, at least, much plausibility. This 
opinion admits the arragement we have given, with one variation, namely, that 
of assigning to the first tense of the subjunctive, two forms: 1st, that which 
simply denotes contingency : as, "If he desires it, I will perform the operation:" 
that is, "If he now desires it;" 2dly, that which denotes both contingency and 
futurity; as, "If he desires it, I will perforin the operation ;" that is, " if he 
should hereafter desire it." This last theory of the subjunctive mood claims 
the merit of rendering the whole system of the moods consistent and regular ; 
of being more conformable than any other, to the definition of the subjunctive; 
and of not referring to the indicative mood forms of expression, which ill accord 
with its simplicity and nature. Perhaps this theory will bear a strict examination. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Rule xix 

parison of quantity: as, "Pompey was not so great a general a* 
Caesar, nor so great a man." 

JOth, So — that: expressing a consequence: as, " He was so fa- 
tigued, that he could scarcely move." 

The conjunctions or and nor may often be used, with nearly equal 
propriety. " The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigor- 
ous, nor decisive, assented to the measure." In this sentence, or 
would perhaps have been better : but, in general, nor seems to repeat 
the negation in the former part of the sentence, and therefore gives 
more emphasis to the expression. 

11 Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in 
pairs. The following are examples of this impropriety. "The re- 
lations are so uncertain, as that they require a great deal of examina- 
tion :" it should be, " that they require," &c. " There was no man 
so sanguine, who did not apprehend some some ill consequences :" 
it ought to be, "so sanguine as not to apprehend," &c; or, "no 
man, how sanguine soever, who did not," &c. "To trust in him is 
no more but to acknowledge his power." " This is no other but the 
gate of paradise." In both these instances, but should be than. "We 
should sufficiently weigh the objects of our hope ; whether they are 
such as we may reasonably expect from them what they propose," 
&c. It ought to be, "that we may reasonably," &c. "The duke 
had not behaved with that loyalty as he ought to have done ;" "with 
which he ought." " In the order as they lie in his preface :" it should 
be, " in order as they lie ;" or, " in the order in which they lie." 
"Such sharp replies that cost him his life;" "as cost him," &c. 
"If he were truly that scarecrow, as he is now commonly painted;" 
"such a scarecrow," &c. "I wish I could do that justice to his 
memory, to oblige the painters," &c; "do such justice as to 
oblige," &c. 



There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with the con- 
junctive form of a verb. " Were there no difference, there would 
be no choice." 

A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, 
is sometimes made use of: as, " had he done this, he had escaped ;" 
"Had the limitations on the prerogative been, in his time, quite fixed 
and certain, his integrity had made him regard a sacred, the boun- 
daries of the constitution." The sentence in the common form 
would have read thus : " If the limitations on the prerogative had 
been, &c. his integrity would have made him regard," &c. 

The particle as, when it is connected with the pronoun such, has 
the force of a relative pronoun : as, " Let such as presume to advise 
others, look well to their own conduct;" which is equivalent to, 
" Let them who presume," &c. But when used by itself, this par- 
ticle is to be considered as a conjunction, or perhaps as an adverb 
See the Key. 

Our language wants a conjunction adapted to familiar style, equi- 
valent to notwithstanding. The words for all that, seem to be toe 
low. " The word was in the mouth of every one, but, for all that, 
the subject may still be a secret." 

In regard that is solemn and antiquated; because would do much 
better in the following sentence. " It cannot be otherwise, in regard 
that the French prosody differs from that of every other language." 

The word except is far preferable to other than. " It admitted of 



Rule kx., SYNTAX 141 

no effectual cure other than amputation." Except is also to be pre- 
ferred to all but. " They were happy all but the strangers." 

In the two following phrases, the conjunction as is improperly 
omitted ; " Which nobody presumes, or is so sanguine a to hope." 
"I must, however, be so just a to own." 

The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and understood; as, 
"I beg you would come to me;" " See thou do it not;" instead of 
"that you would," "that thou do." But in the following and many 
similar phrases, this conjunction were much better inserted: "Yet 
it is reason the memory of their virtues remain to posterity." It 
should be, " yet it is just that the memory,''* &c. 

RULE XX. 
When the qualities of different things are compared, 
the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the con- 
junction than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is 
governed by the verb or the preposition, expressed or 
understood: as, "Thou art wiser than I;" that is, 
" than I am." "They loved him more than me;" 
i. e. "more than they loved me." "The sentiment 
is well expressed by Plato, but much better by Solo- 
mon than him ;" that is, than by him."* 

The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, in the preceding as 
well as in some other forms may be discovered, by supplying the 
words that are not expressed : which will be evident from the follow- 
ing instances of erroneous construction. " He can read better than 
me." " He is as good as her." " Whether I be present or no." 
'* Who did this ? Me." By supplying the w 7 ords understood in each 
of these phrases, their impropriety and governing rule will appear: 
as, " Better than I can read:" " As good as she is ;" " Present or not 
present;" "I did it." 

1 By not attending to this rule, many errors have been committed: 
a number of which is subjoined, as a further caution and direction to 
the learner. " Thou art a much greater loser than me by his death." 
" She suffers hourly more than me." " We contributed a third more 
than the Dutch, who w T ere obliged to the same proportion more than 
us." " King Charles, and more than him, the duke and the popish 
faction, were at liberty to form new schemes." " The drift of all his 
sermons was, to prepare the Jew T s for the reception of a prophet 
mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear." 
" It was not the work of so eminent an author, as him to whom it 
was first imputed." " A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty ; but 
a fool's wrath is heavier than them both." " If the king give us leave, 
we may perform the office as well as them that do." In these pas- 
sages it ought to be, " 7, we, he, they, respectively." 

When the relative who immediately follows than, it seems to form 
an exception to the 20th rule; for in that connexion, the relative 
must be in the objective case; as, "Alfred, than whom, a greater 
king never reigned," &c. " Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, 
none higher sat, &c. It is remarkable that in such instances, if the 
personal pronoun w r ere used, it would be in the nominative case ; as, 

* Seethe Tenth, or any subsequent edition of the Key. Rule xx. The Nctt. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. |Kulexxi 

"A greater king never reigned than he;" that is, "than he, was. 91 
' ,s Beelzebub, than he ,•" &c; that is, "than he sat." The phrase 
Vkm whom, is, however, avoided by the best modem writers. 

RULE XXI. 

To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express 
our ideas in few words, an ellipsis, or omission of 
some words, is frequently admitted. Instead of say- 
ing, *' He was a learned man, he was a wise man, and 
he was a good man," we make use of the ellipsis, and 
say, "He was a learned, wise, and good man." 

When the omission of words would obscure the sen- 
tence, weaken its force, or be attended with an im- 
propriety, they must be expressed. In the sentence, 
" We are apt to love who love us," the word them 
should be supplied. "A beautiful field and trees," 
is not proper language. It should be, "Beautiful 
fields and trees;" or, "A beautiful field and fine 
trees." 

Almost all compounded sentences are more or less elliptical ; 
some examples of which may be seen under the different parts of 
speech. 

1 The ellipsis of the article is thus used; " A man, woman, and 
child:" that is, "a man, a woman, and a child." "A house and 
garden ;" that is, " a house and a garden." " The sun and moon ;" 
that is, "the sun and the moon." " The day and hour;" that is, 
"the day and the hour." In all these instances, the article being 
once expressed, the repetition of it becomes unnecessary. There is, 
however, an exception to this observation, when some peculiar em- 
phasis requires a repetition ; as in the following sentence. " Not 
only the year, but the day and hour." In this case, the ellipsis of 
the last article would be improper. When a different form of the 
article is requisite, the article is also properly repeated : as, "a house 
and an orchard ;" instead of, " a house and orchard." 

2 The noun is frequently omitted in the following manner. "The 
laws of God and man ;" that is, " the laws of God and the laws of 
man." In some very emphatical expressions, the ellipsis should not 
be used : as, " Christ the power of God, and the wisdom of God ;" 
which is more emphatical than, " Christ the power and wisdom of 
God." 

2 The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner 
"A delightful garden and orchard;" that is, "a delightful garden 
and a delightful orchard ;" " A little man and woman;" that is, "A 
little man and a little woman." In such elliptical expressions as 
these, the adjective ought to have exactly the same signification, and 
to be quite as proper, when joined to the latter substantive as to the 
former ; otherwise the ellipsis should not be admitted. 

Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of differen 
numbers: as, " A magnificent house and gardens." In this case 






rule xxi.] SYNTAX. 143 

is better to use another adjective ; as, "A magnificent house and iine 
gardens. " 

4 The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun. " I love and fear 
him;" that is, "I love him, and I fear him." "My house and 
lands; 5 ' that is, "my house and my lands." In these instances the 
ellipsis may take place with propriety; but if we would be more 
express and emphatical, it must not be used : as, " His friends and 
his foes ;" " My sons and my daughters." 

In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is 
usually omitted : as, " This is the man they love ;" instead of, "This 
is the man whom they love." " These are the goods they bought ;" 
ibr, " These are the goods ivhich they bought." 

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the relative pro- 
noun expressed : as it is more proper to say, " The posture in which 
I lay," than, " In the posture Hay :" " The horse on which I rode, 
fell down ;" than " The horse I rode, fell down." 

The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence 
together, and. to prevent obscurity and confusion, should answer to 
each other with great exactness. " We speak that we do know, and 
testify that we have seen." Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, 
and ought to be supplied : as, " We speak that which we do know, 
and testify that which we have seen." 

5 The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances. 
" The man was old and crafty ;" that is, " The man was old, and the 
man was crafty." " She was young, and beautiful, and good ;" that 
is, " She was young, she was beautiful, and she was good." " Thou 
art poor, and wretched, and miserable, and blind, and naked." If 
we would till up the ellipsis in the last sentence, thou art ought to be 
repeated before each of the adjectives. 

It, in such enumeration, we choose to point out one property above 
the rest, that property must be placed last, and the ellipsis supplied: 
as, " She is young and beautiful, and she is good." 

"I went to see and hear him ;" that is, " 1 went to see and I went 
to hear him." In this instance there is not only an ellipsis of the 
governing verb I went, but likewise of the sign of the infinitive mood, 
which is governed by it. 

Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest of the auxi- 
liaries of the compound tenses, are frequently used alone, to spare 
the repetition of the verb : as, " He regards his word, but thou dost 
not :" i. e. "dost not regard it." " We succeeded, but they did not;" 
" did not succeed." " 1 have learned my task, but thou hast not ;" 
"hast not learned." "They must, and they shall be punished;" 
that is, " They must be punished." See the Key. 

The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner. 
"He spoke and acted wisely;" that is, "He spoke wisely, and he 
acted wisely." " Thrice I went and offered my service :" that is, 
"Thrice I went, and thrice I offered my service." 

7 The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen in 
the following instances ; " He went into the abbeys, hails, and public 
buildings :" that is, " he went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, 
and he went into the public buildings." " He also went through all 
the streets and lanes of the city;" that is, "Through all the streets, 
and through all the lanes," ^c. " He spoke to every man and woman 
there," that is, "to every man and to every woman." "This day, 
next month, last year;" that is, "on this iay, in the next month, in 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR [Rule xxit. 

the last year;',' "The Lord do that which seemeth him good:" that 
is, " which seemeth to him good." 

8 The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows : "They confess the 
power, wisdom, goodness, and love, of their Creator;" i. e. "the 
power, and wisdom, and goodness, and love of," &c. "Though I 
love him, I do not flatter him," that is, " Though I love him, yet I do 
not flatter him." 

9 The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common ; it, however 
is sometimes used: as, " Oh ! pity and shame !" that is, " Oh pity ' 
Oh ! shame !" 

As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English lan- 
guage, numerous examples of it might be given ; but only a few more 
can be admitted here. 

In the following instance there is a very considerable one : " He 
will often argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated 
we should gain from one nation; and if another, from another;" 
that is, " He will often argue, that if this part of our trade were 
well cultivated, we should gain from one nation, and if another part 
of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from auothei 
nation." 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the elite 
sis : " Wo is me ;" i. e. " wo is to me." " To let blood ;" i. e. "to 
let out blood." " To let down ;" i. e. " to let it fall or slide down." 
• <\ri° V alk a mile '" *• e - " t0 walk through the space of a mile." 
To sleep all night;" i. e. " To sleep through all the night." " To 
go a fishing;" "To go a hunting:" i.e. "to go on a fishing voyage 
or business ;" " to go on a hunting party." " I dine at two o'clock;" 
i. e. at two of the clock." " By sea, by land, on shore :" i. e. " By 
the sea, by the land, on the shore." 

r 10 ,,T ft ? examples that follow are produced to show the impropriety 
of ellipsis in some particular cases. "The land was always pos- 
sessed, during pleasure, by those intrusted with the command;" it 
J R2JH? °e, " tnose Persons intrusted ;" or, " those who were intrusted." 
If he had read further, he would have found several of his objec- 
tions might have been spared : " that is, " he would have found that 
several of his objections," &c. "There is nothing men are more 
deficient in, than knowing their own characters."' It ought to be 
nothing in which men;" and, "than in knowing." "I scarcely 
Know any part of natural philosophy would yield more variety and 
use; it should be, "which would yield," &c. "In the temper of 
mind he was then ;" i. e. "in which he then was." "The little 
satisfaction and consistency, to be found in most of the systems of 
U-ivinity I have met with, made me betake myself to the sole reading 
of the Scriptures:" it ought to be, "which are to be found, and 
which I hays met with." "He desired they might go to the altar 
together, and jointly return their thanks to whom only they were 
due ;" i. e. " to him to whom," &c. 

RULE XXII. 
All the parts of a sentence should correspond to 
each other: a regular and dependent construction, 
throughout, should be carefully preserved. The fol- 
lowing sentence is therefore inaccurate: "He was 
more beloved, but not so much admired, as Cinthio." 



Rule xxit.] SYNTAX. ^ 

It should be, "He was more beloved than Cinthio, 
but not so much admired." . 

The first example under this rule, presents a most irregular con- 
strudion namely, " He was more beloved as Cmthio." The words 
^ and so much, are. very improperly stated as having the same 
re-imen. In correcting such sentences, it is not necessary to supply 
the latter ellipsis ; because it cannot lead to any discordant or im- 
proper construction, and .the supply would often be harsh or inele- 

ga As the**22d Rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it may, at 
the first view, appear to be too general to be useful But by ranging 
under it a number of sentences peculiarly constructed, we shall per- 
ceive, that it is calculated to ascertain the true grammatical con- 
struction of many modes of expression, which none of the particular 
rules can sufficiently explain. . 

" This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, is, or 
shall be published." It ought to be, " that nas been, or shall be pub- 
lished " " He was guided by interests always different, sometimes 
contrary to, those of the community ;" " different from ; or, always 
different from those of the community, and sometimes contrary to 
tfiem " " Will it be urged that these books are as old, or even older 
chan tradition ?" The words, " as old," and " older,' cannot have a 
common regimen ; it should be " as old as tradition, or even older. 
" It requires few talents to which, most men are not born, or at least 
may not acquire;" "or which, at least they may not acquire 
«tV court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the teeth 
of the common law." In this construction, the first verb is said,, to 
mitigate the teeth of the common law," which is an evident solecism. 
" Mitigates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it," would have 
been grammatical. . - , , , 

"They presently grow into good humour, and good language 
towards the crown ;" "grow into good language,' is very improper. 
" There is never wanting a set of evil instruments, who either out 
of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are always ready, &c. 
We say properly, " A man acts out of mad zeal " or, " out of private 
hatred;" but we cannot say, if we would speak English, he acts 
out of filthy lucre." " To double her kindness and caresses of me; 
the word " kindness " requires to be followed by either to or for, and 
cannot be construed with the preposition of. "Never was man so 
teased, or suffered half the uneasiness, as I have done this even- 
ing:" the first and third clauses, viz. "Never was man so teased, as 
I have done this evening," cannot be joined without an impropriety; 
and to connect the second and third, the word that must be substi- 
tuted for as ; " Or suffered half the uneasiness that I have done ; or 
else, " half so much uneasiness as I have suffered." 

The first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, and 
those .such as are hardly consistent with one another : How much 
soeveAhe reformation of this degenerate age is almost utterly to be 
despaired of, we may yet have a more comfortable prospect of future 
times." The sentence would be more correct in the following form: 
"Though the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to be 
despaired of," &c. , . . .'•« V u +u 

"Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with the 
blood-thirsty ; in whose hands is wickedness, and their right-hand is 
"iill of gifts " As the passage, introduced by the copulative conjunc- 
18 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

jfL^' T as n °t intended as a continuation of the principal and in- 
tZ ^ ^,°, f ,. the s , s,lten «, but of the dependent part, the re a- 
fav 'Whose should have been used instead of the possessive their; viz. 

and 2t>/josc right-hand is full of gifts." 
hoa-T^r ''ath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the 
hfm " Th"' C th ' n P ™ h,ch . Goii ha ' h Prepared for them that love 
tl ^'samf ™f'" S to - be ^ ""Propriety in this instance, in which 
t ne f^X"lAT S Jna double capacity, performing at the same 

f , ?/" ce f bo j h .° tf l e nominative and objective cases. " Nei- 

&J^lA^b e e d en 1 r , e gut heart0f raa "' t0 C ° nCeive the *«■*" 
thr-]^f m have t, he Power o f retaining, altering, and compounding, 
DicfU^ff 8 . w . hlcl ?,we have once received, into all the varieties of 
Doundin, iZ?™" lt ls ,yery proper to say, "altering and com- 
™ e iii'nf nt. Image ! ^ hlch J? have " ce received, into all the 
•4eK nfn/i'h ' ''' ? f nd n' S i° r ' ; l ? ut - we can with no propriety say, 
retaining them into all the varieties:" and yet, according to the 
manner in which.the words are ranged, this conduction is 'unavoi^! 
earh nr,,.|[, f ;.! lninS 'Ti alt3r r nS, i an ' J compounding," are participles, 
l^ose i«X« ' \ e T a ly / efers t0 - a .n d governs the subsequent noun 
♦ho LV ? ' and 'l'? 1 n011n a ^ am 1S necessarily connected with 
Wn iTr S /K P °r' 10 "' fato i The construction might easily have 
two VJtt ! d ' b - y t ?i °' U ' ns K e lr Participle retaining from the other 
imails! -hd^' '"i th ' S - Vay : ^ e h , ave t,le Power of retaining those 
*?n- m ni ' " W on ?e received, and of altering and compound- 
henirZ,, ° w *£ Var + V etleS of plct,lre and vision ;" or, perhaps, 
no mnin^lL ^ e haVe J 1 ?* Power of retaining, altering, ami com- 
K i„£ nwlf ""ages which we have once received, and of forming 
Uiem into all the varieties of picture and vision." 

INTERJECTION. 

•i NcSWM xxl interjection ^ see Rule v « Note »■ ™* ». 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING. 

^i\U Ve h f\l fm] f he i th <r explanation of the different parts of 
speech and the rales for forming them into sentences, it is now 
fh^nf i L° glVe ^ 0,1 i e . exam P Ie s of the manner in which the learners 
should be exercised in order to prove their knowled-e, and to ren- 

thP n«&M^ » en \ J hls , is Cal,ed Parsin ^ The nature of 
that ifc ill W r" f S , - he . ■fMation of ^ to learners, require. 

Ptvmnlnlv I!? 6 ^^ ID ° tW ° ^ tS 5 viz ' Parsin S> aS jt «»Pectl 

•yntex * ; an parSing ' as lt res P ects botn etymology and 

SECTION I. Specimens of Etymological Parsing. 
"Virtue ennobles us." 
rJ!nn Ue iU?? co, l nmon substantive, of the neuter gender, the third 
thFSnM? £» u im . mhev > and in the nominative case. (Decline 
innt S ^T^f. 1 ! a reguIar verb active > indicative mood, pre- 
sent tense, and the third person singular. (Repeat the present tense, 

the riSuTfend 2^ , 5.£ iwct ^!ft usin2: the En * lish Ex ercises," prefixed to 
me «*wa and every subsequent edition of that book. 




C Lit 

SYNTAX. ^ 147 

ike imperfecl tense, and> the perfect participle.]) Us is a persona] 
pronoun, of the first person plural, and in the objective case. (De- 
cline it.) 

"Goodness will be rewarded." 

Goodness is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third 
person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. (Decline 
it. ) Will be rewarded is a regular verb, in the passive voice, the 
indicative mood, the first future tense, and the third person singu- 
lar. {Repeat the present tense, the imperfect tense, and the perfect 
participle.) 

" Strive to improve." 

Strive is an irregular verb neuter, in the imperative mood, and of 
the second person singular. (Repeat the present tense, §c.) To im- 
prove is a regular verb neuter, and in the infinitive mood. (Repeat 
the present tense, §c.) 

"Time flies, ! how swiftly." 

lime is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third per- 
son, the singular number, and in the nominative case. (Decline the 
noun.) Flies is an irregular verb neuter, the indicative mood, pre- 
sent tense, and the third person singular. (Repeat the present tense, 
fyc.) O! is an interjection. How and swiftly are adverbs. 
" Gratitude is a delightful emotion." 

Gratitude is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third 
person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. {Decline 
it.) Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, 
and the third person singular. (Repeat the present tense, fyc.) A is 
the indefinite article. Delightful is an adjective in the positive state. 
(Repeat the degrees of comparison.) Emotion is a common substan- 
tive of the neuter gender, the third person, the singular number, and 
in the nominative case. (Decline it.) 

u They who forgive, act nobly." 

TJiey is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the plural number, 
and in the nominative case. {Decline it.) WIw is a relative pronoun, 
and the nominative case. (Decline it.) Forgive is an irregular verb 
active, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person plural. 
(Repeat the present tense, §c.) Act is a regular verb active, indica- 
tive mood, present tense, and the third person plural. (Repeal, ike.) 
Nobly is an adverb of quality. (Repeat the degrees of comparison.) 
" By living temperately, our health is promoted." 

By is a preposition. Living is the present participle of the regular 
neuter verb "to live." (Repeat the participle.) Temperately is an 
adverb of quality. Our is an adjective pronoun of the possessive 
kind. (Decline it.) Health is.a common substantive, of the third 
person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. (Decline 
it.) Is promoted is a regular verb passive, indicative mood, present 
tense, and the third person singular. (Repeat, §c.) 

"We should be kind to them, who are unkind to us." 

We is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the plural number, 
and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) Should, be is an irregular 
verb neuter, in the potential mood, the imperfect tense, and the first 
person plural. (Repeat the present tense. §c.) Kind is an adjective, 
in the positive state. (Repeat the degrees of comparison.) To is a 

* The learner should occasionally repeat all the mood* and tenses of the verb* 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

preposition. Them is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the 
plural number, and in the objective case. {Decline it.) Who is a 
relative pronoun, and in the nominative case. {Decline it.) Are is 
an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the 
third person plural. {Repeat, §c.) Unkind is an adjective in the 
positive state. {Repeat the degrees of comparison.) To is a preposi- 
tion. Us is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the plural num- 
ber, and in the objective case. {Decline it.) 

SECTION II. Specimens of Syntactical Parsing. 
" Vice produces misery." 

Vice is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third \ief^\, 
son, the singular number, and in the nominative case. Produces is a 
regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, the third person 
singular, agreeing with its nominative "vice" according to Rule i. 
which says ; {here repeat the rule.) Misery is a common substan- 
tive, of the neuter gender, the third person, the singular number, and 
the objective case, governed by the active verb "produces," accord- 
ing to Rule xi. which says, &.c. 

" Peace and joy are virtue's crown.' 

Peace is a common substantive. {Repeal the gender, person numbe*', 
and case.) And is a copulative conjuction. Joy is a common sub- 
stantive. {Repeat the person, number, and case.) Are is an irregular 
verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person 
plural, agreeing with the nominative case " peace and joy," accord- 
ing to Rule ii. which says : {here repeat the rule.) Virtue^s is a com- 
mon substantive, of the third person, the singular number, and in the 
possessive case, governed by the substantive " crown," agreeably to 
Rule x. which says, &c. Crown is a common substantive, of the 
neuter gender, the third person, the singular number, and in the 
nominative case, agreeably to the fourth note of Rule xr. 
"Wisdom or folly governs us." 

Wisdom is a common substantive. {Repeat the gender, person, 
number, and case.) Or is a disjunctive conjunction. Folly is a 
common substantive. {Repeal the person, number, and case. ) Governs 
is a regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, and the third 
person singular, agreeing with its nominative case, " wisdom" or 
"folly," according to Rule in. which says, &c. Us is a personal 
pronoun, of the first person, plural number, and the objective case, 
governed by the active verb " governs " agreeably to Rule xi. which 
says, &c. 

"Every heart knows its sorrows." 
Every is an adjective pronoun of the distributive kind, agreeing 
with its substantive " heart," according to Note 2 under Rule vnti 
which says, he. Heart is a common substantive. ( Repeal the gen- 
der, person, number, and case.) Knows is an irregular verb active, 
indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with 
its nominative case " heart," according to Rule i. which says, kc. 
Its is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular, and of the 
neuter gender, to agree with its substantive " heart, " according to 
Rule v. which says, kc. it is in the possessive case, governed by 
the noun "sorrows," according to Rule x. which says,&c. Sorrows 
is a common substantive, of the third person, the plural number, and 
the objective case, governed by the active verb " knows," according 
to Rule xi. which says, &e. 



tU 



SYNTAX. 149 

"'The man is happy who lives wisely.' 

The is the definite article. Man is a common substantive, (Re- 
peat the person, number, and case.) Is is an irregular verb neuter, 
indicative mood, present tense, and the third person singular, agree- 
ing with the nominative case " man," according to Rule i. which 
says, &c. Happy is an adjective in the positive state. Who is a 
relative pronoun, which has for its antecedent, " man/' with which 
it agrees in gender and number, according to Rule v. which says. 
&c. Lives is a regular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, 
third person singular, agreeing with its nominative " who," accord- 
ing to Rule vi. which says, &c. Wisely is an adverb of quality, 
placed after the verb, according to Rule xv. 
" Who preserves us ?" 

Who is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, and in the 
nominative case singular. The word to which it relates, (its subse- 
quent,) is the noun or pronoun containing the answer to the ques- 
tion ; agreeably to a note under Rule vi. Preserves is a regular verb 
active, indicative mood, present tense, third, person singular, agree- 
ing with its nominative " who," according to Rule vi. wmicn says, 
&c. Us is a personal pronoun. (Repeat the person, number, case, 
and rule.) 

" Whose house is that ? My brother's and mine. Who inhabit 
it? We." 

Whose is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, and relates 
to the following words, " Brothers" and " mine," agreeably to a note 
under Rule vi. It is in the possessive case, governed by "house,''"' 
according to Rule x. which says, &c. House is a common substan- 
tive. (Repeat the gender, person, number, and case.) Is is an irregu- 
lar verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person 
singular, agreeing with its nominative case " house," according to 
Rule i. which says, Sec. That is an adjective pronoun of the de- 
monstrative kind. My is an adjective pronoun of the possessive 
kind. Brother's is a common substantive, of the third person, the 
singular number, and in the possessive case, governed by " house" 
understood, according to Rule x. and a note under Rule vi. And is 
a copulative conjunction. Mine is a personal pronoun, of the first 
person, the singular number, and in the possessive case, according to 
a note under Rule x. and another under Rule vi. Who is a relative 
pronoun of the interrogative kind, of the plural number, in the nomi- 
native case, and relates to "we" following according to a note under 
Rule vi. Inhabit is a regular verb active. (Repeal the mood, tense, per- 
son, fyc.) It is a personal pronoun, of the third person,the singular num- 
ber, and in the objective case, governed by the active verb " inhabit," 
according to Rule xi. which says, &c. We is a personal pronoun, 
of the first person, the plural number, and the nominative case to the 
verb "inhabit," understood. The words "inhabit it" are implied 
after "we," agreeably to a note under Rule vi. 

" Remember to assist the distressed." 

Remember is a regular verb active, imperative mood, the second 
person singular, and agrees with its nominative case " thou" under- 
stood. To assist is a regular verb active,*in the infinitive mood, 
governed by the preceding verb "remember," according to Rule xn. 
which says, &c. The is the definite article. Distressed is an adjec- 
tive put s ubstan t i ve 1 y . 
13* 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" We are not unemployed." 

We is a personal pronoun. {Repeat the person, number, and case.) 
Are is an irregular verb neuter. {Repeat the mood, tense, person, 
&c.) Not is an adverb of negation. Unemployed is an adjective in 
the positive state. The two negatives not and un, form an affirma- 
tive, agreeably to Rule xvi. which says, &c. 
" This bounty has relieved you and us , and has gratified the donor." 

This is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative kind. Bounty 
is a common substantive. {Repeat the person, number and case.) 
Has relieved is a regular verb active, indicative mood, perfect tense, 
third person singular, agreeing with its nominative " bounty," ac- 
cording to Rule i. which says, &c. You is a personal pronoun, of 
the second person plural, and in the objective case. {Repeat the 
government and rule.) And is a copulative conjunction. Us is a per- 
sonal pronoun, in the objective case. You and us are put in the same 
case, according to Rule xvin. which says, &c. And is a copulative 
conjunction. Has gratified is a regular verb active, indicative mood, 
perfect tense, and third person singular, agreeing with its nominative 
" bounty" understood. " Has relieved," and " has gratified," are in 
the same mood and tense, according to Rule xvni. which says, &c. 
The is the definite article. Donor is a common substantive, of the 
third person, the singular number, and the objective case, governed 
by the active verb "has gratified," according to Rule xi. which says, 
&c. See the Octavo Grammar, on Gender. 

" He will not be pardoned, unless he repent." 

He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, and in the nominative case. Will be pardoned 
is a regular passive verb, indicative mood, first future tense, and the 
third person singular, agreeing with its nominative " he," according 
to Rule i. and composed of the auxiliaries " will be," and the perfect 
participle " pardoned." Not is a negative adverb. Unless is a dis- 
juctive conjunction. He is a personal pronoun. {Repeat the person, 
number, gender, and case.) Repent is a regular verb neuter, in the 
subjunctive mood, the present tense, the third person singular, and 
agrees with its nominative case " he," accordding to Rule i. which 
says, &c. It is in the subjunctive mood, because it implies a future 
sense, and denotes uncertainty signified by the conjunction " unless," 
agreeably to Rule xix. and the notes. 

"Good works being neglected, devotion is false." 

Good works being neglected, being independent of the rest of the 
sentence, is the case absolute, according to the fifth note of Rule i. 
Devotion is a common substantive. {Repeat the number, person, and 
case.) Is is an irregular verb neuter. {Repeat the mood, tense, per- 
son, fyc. ) False is an adjective in the positive state, and belongs to 
its substantive "devotion" understood, agreeably to Rule viii. which 
says, &c. 
" The emperor, Marcus Aurelius, was a wise and virtuous prince." 

The is the definite article. Emperor is a common substantive, of 
the masculine gender, the third person, the singular number, and in 
the nominative case. Marcus Aurelius is a proper name or substan- 
tive, and in the nominative case, because it is put in apposition with 
the substantive "emperor," agreeably to the first note of Rule x. 
Was is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, imperfect tense, 



SYNTAX. 15J 

and the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative case 
" emperor.-*' A is the indefinite article. Wise is an adjective, and 
belongs to its substantive "prince." And is a copulative conjunc- 
tion. Virtuous is an adjective, and belongs, &c. Prince is a com- 
mon substantive, and in the nominative case, agreeably to the fourth 
note of Rule xi. 

" To err is human." 
To err, is the infinitive mood, and the nominative case to the verb 
"is." Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, 
and the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative case " to 
err," agreeably to Note I. under Rule the first. Human is an adjec- 
tive, and belongs to its substantive " nature" understood, according 
to Rule viii. which says, &. 

" To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions, is scarcely 
one remove from actually committing them." 

To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions, is part of a 
sentence, which is the nominative case to the verb " is." Is is an 
irregular verb neuter, 8tc. agreeing with the aforementioned part 
of a sentence, as its nominative case, agreeably to Note i. under 
Rule the first. Scarcely is an adverb. One is a numeral adjective 
agreeing with its substantive " remove." Remove is a common sub- 
stantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, the singular number, 
and in the nominative case, agreeably to the fourth note of Rule xi. 
From is a preposition. Committing is the present participle of the 
regular active verb "to commit." Them is a personal pronoun, of 
the third person, the plural number, and in the objective case, go- 
verned by the participle "committing," agreeably to Rule xiv. 
which says, &c. 

" Let me proceed." 

This sentence, according to the statement of grammarians in gene- 
ral, is in the imperative mood, of the first person, and the singular 
number. The sentence may, however, be analyzed in the following 
manner. Let is an irregular verb active, in the imperative mood, of 
the second person, the plural number, and agrees with its nomina- 
tive case " you" understood : as, " do you let." Me is a personal 
pronoun, of the first person, the singular number and in the objective 
case, governed by the active verb "let," agreeably to Rule xi. which 
says, &c. Proceeds a regular verb neuter, in the infinitive mood, go- 
verned by the preceding verb " let," according to Rule xn. which 
says, &c. 

"Living expensively and luxuriously destroys health. By living 
frugally and temperately, health is preserved." 

Living exdensively and luxuriously, is the nominative case to the 
verb " destroys," agreeably to Note i. under Rule i. Living frugally 
and temperately, is a substantive phrase in the objective case go- 
verned by the preposition "by," according to Note u, under Rule xiv. 

The preceding specimens of parsing, if carefully studied by the 
learner, seem to be sufficiently explicit, to enable him to compre- 
hend the nature of this employment; and sufficiently diversified, to 
qualify him, in other exercises, to point out and apply the remaining 
rules, both principal and subordinate. 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR [Sect. ,. 

PART IV. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody consists of two parts: the formei teaches 
the true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, 
quantity, emphasis, pause, and tone ; and the latter, 
the laws of versification. 



CHAPTER I 

Of Pronunciation. 



SECTION 1. Of Accent. 

Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the 
voice, on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it 
may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished 
from them : as in the word presume, the stress of the 
voice must be on the letter ?/, and second syllable, 
same, which take the accent, 

As words may be formed of a different number of syllables, from 
one to eight or nine, it was necessary to have some peculiar mark to 
distinguish words from mere syllables ; otherwise speech would be 
only a continued succession of syllables, without conveying ideas; 
for, as words are the marks of ideas, any confusion in the marks, 
must cause the same in the ideas for which they stand. It was 
therefore necessary, that the mind should at once perceive what 
number of syllables belongs to each word, in utterance. This might 
be done by a perceptible pause at the end of each word in speaking, 
as we form a certain distance between them in writing and printing. 
But this would make discourse extremely tedious; and though it 
might render words distinct, would make the meaning of sentences 
confused. Syllables might also be sufficiently distinguished by a 
certain elevation or depression of voice upon one syllable of each 
word, which was the practice of some nations. But the English 
tongue has, for this purpose, adopted a mark of the easiest, and sim- 
plest kind, which is called accent, and which effectually answers 
the end. 

Every word in our language, of more than one syllable, has one 
of them distinguished from the rest in this manner; and some writers 
assert, that every monosyllable of two or more letters, has one of its 
letters thus distinguished. 

Accent is either principal or secondary. The principal accent is 
that which necessarily distinguishes one syllable in a word from the 
rest. The secondary accent is that stress which we may occasion- 
ally place upon another syllable, besides that which has the principal 
accent ; in order to pronounce every part of the word more distinctly, 
forcibly, and harmoniously : thus, " Complaisant, caravan," and 
"violin," have frequently an accent, on the first as well as on the last 



.Accent] PROSODY. 153 

syllable, though a somewhat less forcible one. The same may be 
observed of " Repartee, referee, privateer, domineer," &c. But it 
must be observed, that though an accent is allowed on the first sylla- 
ble of these words, it is by no means necessary ; they may all be 
pronounced with one accent, and that on the last syllable, without 
the least deviation from propriety. 

As emphasis evidently points out the most significant word in a 
sentence ; so, where other reasons do not forbid, the accent always 
dwells with greatest force on that part of the word which, from its 
importance, the hearer has always the greatest occasion to observe : 
and this is necessarily the root or body of the word. But as harmony 
of termination frequently attracts the accent from the root to the 
branches of words, so the first and most natural law of accentuation 
seems to operate less in fixing the stress than any other. Our own 
Saxon terminations, indeed, with perfect uniformity, leave the prin- 
cipal part oF the word in quiet possession of what seems its lawful 
property ; but Latin and Greek terminations, of which our Ian 
guage is full, assume a right of preserving their original accent, and 
subject almost every word they bestow upon us to their own classi- 
cal laws. 

Accent, therefore, seems to be regulated in a great measure by 
etymology. In words from the Saxon, the accent is generally on the 
root ; in words from the learned languages, it is generally on the ter- 
mination ; and if to these we add the different accent we lay on some 
words, to distinguish them from others we seem to have the three 
great principles of accentuation namely, the radical, the termina- 
iional, and the distinctive. The radical : as, Love, ldvely, loveli- 
ness ;" the terminational : as " Harmony; harmonious;' 5 the distinc- 
tive : as, " Cdnvert, to convert." 

Accent on Dissyllables. 

Words of two syllables have necessarily one of them accented, 
and but one. It is true, for the sake of emphasis, we sometimes lay 
an equal stress upon two successive syllables: as, "Di-r£ct sdme- 
times ;" but when these words are pronounced alone, they have 
never more than one accent. The word " a-m£n," is the only word 
which is pronounced with two accents when alone. 

Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the former sylla- 
ble is commonly accented: as, "Childish, kingdom, actest, acted, 
toilsome, lover, scoffer, fairer, foremost, zealous, fulness, medldy, 
artist." 

Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word, 
have commonly the accent on the latter : as, " To be se£n, to bestdw, 
to return." 

Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has 
commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former syl- 
lable : as, "To cement, a cement; to contract, a contract; to pre- 
sage, a presage." 

This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have their 
accent on the former, yet nouns often have it on the latter syllable : 
as, "Delight, perfume." These nouns which, in the common order 
of language, must have preceded the verbs, often transmit their ac- 
cent to the verbs they form, and inversely. Thus, the noun "water" 
must have preceded the verb " to water," as the verb " to corres- 
pond," must have preceded the noun " correspondent :" and " to 
pursue" claims priority to "pursuit." So that we may conclude, 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect, i 

wherever verbs deviate from the rule, it is seldom by chance, and 
generally in those words only where a superior law of accent takes 
place. 

All dissyllables ending in y, our, ow s le, ish, ck, ter, age, en, et: as, 
"Cranny, labour, willow, wallow;" except "allow, avow, enddw^ 
below, bestow ;" " battle, banish, cambric, batter, courage, fasten, 
quiet;" accent the former syllable. 

Dissyllable nouns in er, as, " Canker, butter," have the accent on 
the former syllable. 

Dissyllable verbs, terminating in a consonant and e final, as, 
" Comprise, escape;" or having a diphthong in the last syllable, as. 
"Appease, reve'ai ;" or ending in two consonants; as, "Attend; 
have the accents on the latter syllable. 

Dissyllable nouns, having a diphthong in the latter syllable have 
commonly their accent on the latter syllable ; as, " Applause ;" ex- 
cept some words in ain: as, " Villain, curtain, mountain." 

Dissyllables that have two vowels, which are separated in the pro- 
nunciation, have always the accent on the first syllable : as, "Lion, 
riot, quiet, liar, ruin ;" except " create." 

Accent on Trisyllables. 

Trisyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a sylla- 
ble, retain the accent of the radical word : as, " Loveliness, tender- 
ness, contemner, wagoner, physical, bespatter, cdmmenting, com- 
manding, assurance." 

( Trisyllables ending in ous, at, ion : as, " arduous, capital, men- 
tion," accent the first. 

Trisyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate, accent the first syllable: as, 
" Countenance, continence, armament, imminent, elegant, propa- 
gate ;" unless they are derived from words having the accent on the 
last: as, " Connivance, acquaintance;" and unless the middle has a 
vowel before two consonants : as, " Promulgate." 

Trisyllables ending in y, as, "entity, specify, liberty, victory, sub- 
sidy," commonly accent the first syllable. 

Trisyllables ending in re or le, accent the first syllable : as, " Legi- 
ble, theatre;" except "Disciple," and some words whicn have a 
preposition : as, " Example, indenture." 

Trisyllables ending in ude, commonly accent the first syllable : as, 
"Plenitude, habitude, rectitude." 

Trisyllables ending in ator, have the accent on the middle sylla- 
ble ; as, " Spectator, creator," &c. : except " drator, senator, barra- 
tor, legator." 

Trisyllables which have in the middle syllable a diphthong, as, 
" Endeavour ;" or a vowel before two consonants ; as, " Domestic ;" 
accent the middle syllable. 

Trisyllables that have their accent on the last syllable, are com 
monly French : as, " Acquiesce, repartee, magazine ;" or they are 
words formed by prefixing one or two syllables to a long syllable • 
as, " Immature, overcharge." 

Accent on Polysyllables. 

Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, generally 
follow the accent of the words from which they are derived: as, 
"arrogating, cdntinency, incontinently, commendable, communica- 
bleness." 

Words ending in ator have the accent generally on the penulti - 



Quantity.] PROSODY. 155 

mate, or last syllable but one : as, " Einmendator, gladiator, equivo* 
cator, prevaricator. 5 ' 

Words ending in le commonly have the accent on the first sylla- 
ble : as, " amicable, despicable :" unless the second syllable has a 
vowel before two consonants : as, " Combustible, conde^nnable." 

Words ending in ion, ous, and ty, have their accent on the ante- 
penultimate, or last syllable but two : as, " Salvation, victorious, 
activity." 

Words which end in ia, io, and cat, have the accent on the ante- 
penult: as, " Cyclopaedia, punctilio, despdtical." 

The rules respecting accent, are not advanced as complete or in- 
fallible : they are merely proposed as useful. Almost every rule of 
every language has its exceptions; and, in English, as in other 
tongues, much must be learned by example and authority. 

It may be further observed, that though the syllable on which the 
principal accent is placed, is fixed and certain, yet we may, and do, 
frequently make the secondary principal, and the principal secon- 
dary thus, " Caravan, complaisant, violin, repartee, referee, priva 
teer, domineer," may all have the greater stress on the first, and tf<3 
less on the la^t syllable, without any violent offence to the ear : nay, 
it may be asserted, that the principal accent on the first syllable of 
these words, and none at all on the last, though certainly improper, 
has nothing in it grating or discordant: but placing an accent on the 
second syllable of these words would entirely derange them, and 
produce great harshness and dissonance. The same observations 
may be applied to " demonstration, lamentation, provocation, navi- 
gator, propagator, alligator," and every similar word in the language. 

SECTION II. Of Quantity. 

The quantity of a syllable is that time which is 

occupied in pronouncing it. It is considered as long 

or SHORT. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on 
the vovv.^1; which occasions it to be slowly joined in 
pronunciation with the following letters : as, " Fall, 
bale, mood, house, feature." 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the con- 
sonant : which occasions the. vowel to be quickly 
joined to the succeeding letter: as, ant, bonnet, 
hunger." 

A long syllable generally requires double the time 
of a short one in pronouncing it: thus, "Mate" and 
"Note" should be pronounced as slowly again as 
44 Mat" and "Not." 

Unaccented syllables are generally short : as, " admire, bdldngss, 
sinner." But to this rule there are many exceptions: as, " aUsd, 
6xTle, gangrene, umpire, fdretaste," &c. 

When the accent is on a consonant, the syllable is often more or 
less short, as it ends with a single consonant, or with more than one : 
as, " S£dly, r<5bber; persist, m&tchless." 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect, nr 

When the accent is on a semi- vowel, the time of the syllable may 
be Protracted by dwelling upon the semi-vowel: as, "Cur' can' 

Wf- W iJ? n tb6 aCCent falls ° n a mule ' the s y llabJ e ^not be 
lengthened m .he same manner : as, " Bubble, captain tdtter " 

nnL. e th qU | n \ y °f v , owe,s has ' in , . some m ^sure, been considered 
nfthl hX Pa w°K f S 1 ?" 111 ^ **«* treats of the different sounds 
of the letters ; and therefore we shall dismiss this subject with a few 
general rules and observations. 

1st, All vowels under the principal accent, before the terminations 
la to, ton, preceded by a single consonant, are pronounced long: as 
• Ke u ? al u ia .> rolio, adhesion, explosion, confusion:" except the vowel 
i'Jff >• m » £ . sltu ation is short: as, "Militia, punctilio, decision, 
contrition The only exceptions to this rule seem to be " Discre- 
tion battalion, gladiator, national, and rational " 

2d, All vowels that immediately precede the terminations itv and 
ety, are pronounced long: as, "Deity, piety, spontaneity." But if 
one consonant precedes these terminations, every preceding accented 
vowel is short; except u, and the a in " scarcity," and " rarity -"as 

Poianty, severity divinity, curiosity --impunity." Even u before 
two consonants contracts itself : as, " Curvity, taciturnity " &c 

3d, Vowels under the principal accent, before the termination it 
and ecal, preceded by a single consonant, are pronounced short: thus, 
(( £?-tanic, pathetic, elliptic, harmonic," have the vowel short: while 

l unic, runic, cubic," have the accented vowel long : and " Fanati- 
ca , poetical levitical, canonical," have the vowel short ; but " Cubi- 
cal, musical," &c. have the u long. 

r jf th '. The v °wel in the antepenultimate syllable of words, with the 
following terminations, is always pronounced short 

loquy; as, obloquy. parous; as, oviparous. 

strophe; as apostrophe. cracy ; as, aristocracy 

meter; as, barometer. gony ; as, cosmogony. 

gonal; as, diagonal. phony; as, symphony. 

vorous; as, carnivorous. nomy ; as, astronomy 

Jrrous; as, somniferous. tomy ; as, anatomy. 

Jiuous; as, superfluous. pathy ; as, antipathy. 

fluent; as, mellifluent. *■'. 

As no utterance, which is void of proportion, can be agreeable to 
the ear; and as quantity, or proportion of time in utterance, greatly 
depends on a due attention to the accent; it is absolutely necessary 

mLir ry f?w° n - W 10 ^° uI 1 attain a J U8t and P Ieasiri ? delivery, to be 
master of that point. See this section in the Octavo Grammar. 

SECTION III. Of Emphasis. 
By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound 
of voice, by which we distinguish some word or words 
on which we design to lay particular stress, and to 
show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Some- 
times the emphatic words must be distinguished by a 
particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress, 

nr^f- 6 "^management of the emphasis depends the life of pro- 
nunciation If no emphasis be placed on any woids, not only will 

ambient Iftl Gd H aV ? \ nd ! if ' ele , SS ' but the meanin S often left 
ambiguous. If the emphasis be placed wrong, we shall pervert and 



Emphasis.] PROSODY 157 

confound the mearing wholly. To give a common instance : such a 
simple question as this, " Do you ride to town to-day ?" is capable 
of no fewer than four different acceptations, according as the empha- 
sis is differently placed on the words. If it be pronounced thus : 
" Do you ride to town to-day ?" the answer may naturally be, " No, 
we send a servant in our stead." If thus : " Do you ride to town to- 
day?" answer, " No, we intend to w 7 alk." "Do you ride to town 
to-day?" "No, we ride into the country." "Do you ride to town 
to-day?" "No, but we shall to-morrow." In like manner, in 
solemn discourse, the whole force and beauty of an expression often 
depend on the emphatic word ; and we may present to the hearers 
quite different views of the same sentiment, by placing the emphasis 
differently. In the following words of our Saviour, observe in what 
different lights the thought is placed, according as the words are 
pronounced. "Judas, betrayest thou the son of man with a kiss?" 
" Betray est thou," makes the reproach turn on the infamy of treach- 
ery. " Betrayest thou," makes it rest upon Judas's connexion with 
his master. "Betrayest thou the son of man," rests it upon our Sa- 
viour's personal character and eminence. " Betrayest thou the son 
of man with a kiss?" turns it upon his prostituting the signal of peace 
and friendship to the purpose of destruction. 

The emphasis often lies on the word that asks a question : as, 
" Who said so ?" " When will he come ?" " What shall I do ?" 
" Whither shall I go ?" " Why dost thou weep ?" And when two 
words are set in contrast, or in opposition to one another, they are 
both emphatic ; as, " He is the tyrant, not the father, of his people ;" 
" His subjects fear him, but they do not love him." 

Some sentences are so full and comprehensive, that almost every 
word is emphatical : as, " Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and 
plains :" or, as that pathetic expostulation in the prophecy of Eze- 
kiel, " Why will ye die !" In the latter short sentence, every word 
is emphatical ; and on which every word we lay the emphasis, whe- 
ther on the first, second, third, or fourth, it strikes out a different 
sense, and opens a new subject of moving expostulation. 

As accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and makes it 
more distinguished by the ear than the rest ; so emphasis ennobles 
the word to which -it belongs, and presents it in a stronger light to 
the understanding. Were there no accents, words would be resolved 
into their original syllables: were there no emphasis, sentences 
w 7 ould be resolved into their original words ; and, in this case, the 
hearer would be under the painful necessity, first, of making out the 
words, and afterwards their meaning. 

Emphasis is of two kinds, simple and complex. Simple, when it 
serves to point out only the plain meaning of any preposition ; com- 
plex, when, besides the meaning, it marks also some affection or 
emotion of the mind; or gives a meaning to words, which they 
would not have in their usual acceptation. In the former case, em- 
phasis is scarcely more than a stronger accent, w 7 ith little or no 
change of tone ; when it is complex, besides force, there is always 
superadded a manifest change of tone. 

The following sentence contains an example of simple emphasis : 
" And Nathan said to David, Thou art the man." The emphasis on 
thou, serves only to point out the meaning of the speaker. But in 
the sentence which follows, we perceive an emotion of the speaker 
superadded to the simple meaning: " Why will ye die !" 

As the emphasis often falls on words in different parts of the sarrm 
14 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect, m 

sentence, so it is frequently required to be continued, with a little 
variation, on two, and sometimes three words together. The follow* 
ing sentence exemplifies both the parts of this position : " If you seek 
to make one rich, study not to increase his stores, but to diminish his 
desires." Emphasis may be further distinguished, into the weaker 
and the stronger emphasis. In the 'sentence, " Exercise and tem- 
perance strengthen the constitution;" we perceive more force 
on the word strengthen, than on any other; though it is not 
equal to the stress which w r e apply to the word indifferent, in the 
following sentence : ''Exercise and temperance strengthen even an 
indifferent constitution." It is also proper to remark, that the words 
exercise, temperance, constitution, in the last example but one, are 
pronounced with greater force, than the particles and and the ; and yet 
those words cannot properly be called emphatical : for the stress that 
is laid on them, is no more than sufficient to convey distinctly the 
meaning of each word. — From these observations it appears, that the 
smaller parts of speech, namely, the articles, conjunctions, preposi- 
tions, &c. are, in general, obscurely and feebly expressed; that the 
substantives verbs, and more significant words, are firmly and dis- 
tinctly pronounced; and that the emphatical words, those which 
mark the meaning of a phrase, are pronounced with peculiar stress 
and energy, though varied according to the degree of their importance. 
Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regulator of quan- 
tity. Though the quantity of our syllables is fixed, in words sepa- 
rately pronounced, yet it is mutable, when these words are ranged 
in sentences ; the long being changed into short, the short into long, 
according to the importance of the words with regard to meaning : 
and as it is by emphasis only, that the meaning can be pointed out, 
emphasis must be the regulator of the quantity. A few examples 
will make this point very evident. 
Pleas'd thou shalt hear — and learn the secret power, &c. 
Pleas 'd thou shalt hear— and thou alone shalt hear— 
Pieas'd thou shalt hear — in spite of them shalt hear — 
Pleas W th6u shalt hear — though not behdld the fair — 
In the first of these instances, the words pleased and hiar, being 
equally emphatical, are both long; whilst the two intermediate 
words, them and shalt, being rapidly passed over, as the sense de- 
mands, are reduced to a short quantity. 

In the second instance, the word thou by being the most important, 
obtains the chief, or rather the sole emphasis ; and thus, it is not only 
restored to its natural long quantity, but obtains from emphasis a still 
greater degree of length, than when pronounced in its separate state. 
This greater degree of length, is compensated by the diminution of 
quantity in the words pleas\i and hear, which are sounded shorter 
than in the preceding instance. The word shalt still continues short 
Here we may also observe, that though thou is long in the first part 
of the verse, it becomes short when repeated in the second, on ac- 
count of the more forcible emphasis belonging to the word alone, 
which follows it. 

In the third instance, the word shalt having the emphasis, obtains a 
long quantity. And though it is impossible to prolong the sound of 
this word, as it ends in a pure mute, yet in this, as in all similar in- 
stances, the additional quantity is to be made out by a rest of the 
voice, proportioned to the importance of the word. In this instance, 
we may also observe, that the word shalt, repeated in the second part 
of *.he line, is reduced again to a short quantity. 



Pauses.] PROSODY. 159 

In the fourth instance, the word hear placed in opposition to the 
word behold, in the latter part of* the line, obtains from the sense the 
chief emphasis, and a proportionate length. The words thou and 
shall, are again reduced to short quantities; and the word pleased 
fends some of the time which if possessed, to the more important 
word hear. 

From these instances, it is evident, that the quantity of our sylla- 
bles is not fixed; but governed by emphasis. — To observe a due 
measurement of time, on all occasions, is doubtless very difficult ; 
but by instruction, attention, and practice, the difficulty may be 
overcome. 

Emphasis changes, not only the quantity of words and syllables, 
but also, in particular cases, the seat of the accent. This is demon- 
strable from the following examples. 

" He shall nicrease, but I shall decrease." " There is a difference 
between giving and /orgiving." " In this species of composition, 
plausibility is much more essential than probability." in these ex- 
amples, the emphasis requires the accent to be placed on syllables, 
to which it does not commonly belong. 

In order to acquire the proper management of the emphasis, the 
great rule, and indeed the only rule possible to be given, is, that the 
speaker or reader study to attain a just conception of the force and 
spirit of the sentiments which he is to pronounce. For to lay the 
emphasis with exact propriety, is a constant exercise of good sense 
and attention. It is far from being an inconsiderable attainment. It 
is one of the greatest trials of a true and just taste; and must arise 
from feeling delicately ourselves, and from judging accurately, of 
what is fittest to strike the feelings of others. 

There is one error, against which it is particularly proper to cau- 
tion the learner; namely, that of multiplying emphatical words too 
much. It is only by a prudent reserve in the use of them, that we 
can give them any weight. If they recur too often; if a speaker or 
reader attempts to render every thing which iie expresses of high 
importance, by a multitude of strong emphases, we soon learn to pay 
little regard to them. To crowd every sentence with emphatical 
words, is like crowding all the pages of a book with Italic characters, 
which, as to the eiiec}, is just the same as to use no such distinctions 
at all. 

SECTION IV. Of Pauses. 

Pauses or rests, in speaking; and 'reading, are a total 
cessation of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in 
many cases, a measurable space of time. 

Pauses are equally necessary to the speaker, and the hearer. To 
the speaker, that he may take breath, without which he cannot pro- 
ceed far in delivery ; and that he may, by these temporary rests, re- 
lieve the organs of speech, which otherwise would be soon tired by 
continued action : to the hearer, that the ear also may be relieved 
from the fatigue, which it would otherwise endure from a continuity 
of sound; and that the understanding may have sufficient, time to 
mark the distinction of sentences, and their several members. 

There are two kinds of pauses : first, emphatical pauses ; and next, 
such as mark the distinctions of the sense. An emphatical pause is 
made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect. *v 

which we desire to fix the hearer's attention. Sometimes, before 
such a thing is said, we usher it in with a pause of this nature. Such 
pauses have the same effect as a strong emphasis ; and are subject to 
same rules; especially to the caution just now given, of not repeating 
them too frequently. For as they excite uncommon attention, and 
of course raise expectation, if the importance of the matter is not 
fully answerable to such expectation, they occasion disappointment 
and disgust. 

But the most frequent and the principal use of pauses, is, to mark 
the divisions of the sense, and at the same time to allow the speaker 
to draw his breath ; and the proper and delicate adjustment of such 
pauses, is one of the most nice and difficult articles of delivery. In 
all reading, and public speaking, the management of the breath re- 
quires a good deal of care, so as not to oblige us to divide words from 
one another, which have so intimate a connexion, that they ought to 
be pronounced with the same breath, and without the least separa- 
tion. Many sentences are miserably mangled, and the force of the 
emphasis totally lost, by the divisions being made in the wrong place. 
To avoid this, every one, while he is speaking or reading, should be 
very careful to provide a full supply of breath for what he is to utter. 
It is a great mistake to imagine, that the breath must be drawn only 
at the end of a period, when the voice is allowed to fall. It may 
easily be gathered at the intervals of the period, when the voice is 
only suspended for a moment ; and, by this management, one may 
always have a sufficient stock for carrying on the longest sentence, 
without improper interruptions. 

Pauses in reading, and public discourse, must be formed upon the 
manner in which we utter ourselves in ordinary, sensible conversa- 
tion; and not upon the stiff artificial manner which we acquire, frcm 
reading books according to the common punctuation. It will by no 
means be sufficient to attend to the points used in printing; for these 
aie far from marking all pauses which ought to be made in speaking. 
A mechanical attention to these resting-places has perhaps been one 
cause of monotony, by leading the reader to a similar tone at every 
stop, and a uniform cadence at every period. The primary use of 
points is, to assist the reader in discerning the grammatical construc- 
tion ; and it is only as a secondary object, that they regulate his pro- 
nunciation. 

To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must not only be 
made in the right place, but also accompanied with a proper tone of 
voice, by which the nature of these pauses is intimated ; much more 
than by the length of them, which can seldom be exactly measured. 
Sometimes it is only a slight and simple suspension of voice that is 
proper; sometimes a degree of cadence in the voice is required; and 
sometimes that peculiar tone and cadence which denote the sentence 
to be finished. In all these cases, we are to regulate ourselves, by 
attending to the manner in which nature teaches us to speak, when 
engaged in real and earnest discourse with others. 

It is a general rule, that the suspending pause should be used when 
the sense is incomplete; and the closing pause, when it is finished. 
But there are phrases, in which, though the sense is not completed, 
the voice takes the closing, rather than the suspending pause ; and 
others, in which the sentence finishes by the pause of suspension. 

The closing pause must not be confounded w 7 ith that full of the 
voice, or cadence, with which many readers uniformly finish a sen- 
tence Nothing is more destructive of propriety and energv thaa 



Pause.] PROSODY. 161 

this habit. The tones and inflections of the voice at the close of a 
sentences ought to be diversified, according to the general nature of 
the discourse, and the particular construction and meaning of the 
sentence. In plain narrative, and especially in argumentation, a 
small attention to the manner in which we relate a fact, or maintain 
an argument, in conversation, will show, that it is frequently more 
proper to raise the voice, than to let it fall, at the end of the sentence. 
Some sentences are so constructed, that the last words require a 
stronger emphasis than any of the preceding; while others admit of 
being closed with a soft and gentle sound. Where there is nothing 
in the sense which requires the last sound to be elevated oremphati- 
cal, an easy fall, sufficient to show that the sense is finished, will be 
proper. And in pathetic pieces, especially those of the plaintive, 
tender, or solemn kind, the tone of the passion will often require a 
Still greater cadence of the voice. The best method of correcting a 
uniform cadence, is frequently to read select sentences, in w 7 hich the 
style is pointed, and in which antitheses are frequently introduced: 
and argumentative pieces, or such as abound with interrogatives, 
or earnest exclamation. 

SECTION V. Of Tones, 

Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; 
consisting in the modulation of the voice, the notes or 
variations of sound which we employ in the expression 
of our sentiments. 

Emphasis affects particular words and phrases with a degree of 
tone or inflection of the voice ; but tones, peculiarly so called, affect 
sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes even the whole of a discourse. 

To show the use and necessity of tones, we need only observe, 
that the mind, in communicating its ideas, is in a continual state of 
activity, emotion, or agitation, from the different effects which those 
ideas produce in the speaker. Now the end of such communication 
being, not merely to lay open the ideas, but also the different feelings 
which they excite in him who utters them, there must be other signs 
than words, to manifest those feelings ; as words uttered in a monoto- 
nous manner, can represent only a similar state of mind, perfectly 
free from all activity or emotion. As the communication of these 
internal feelings, was of much more consequence in our social inter- 
course, than the mere conveyance of ideas, the Author of our being 
did not, as in that conveyance, leave the invention of the language 
of emotion, to man ; but impressed it himself upon our nature in the 
same manner as he has done with regard to the rest of the animal 
world; all of which express their various feelings, by various tones. 
Ours indeed, from the superior rank that we hold, are in a high de- 
gree more comprehensive ; as there is not an act of the mind, an 
exertion of the fancy, or an emotion of the heart, which has not its 
peculiar tone, or note of the voice, by which it is f o be expressed ; 
and which is suited exactly to the degree of internal feeling. It is 
chiefly in the proper use of these tones, that the life, spirit, beauty, 
and harmony of delivery consist. 

An extract from the beautiful lamentation of David over Saul and 
Jonathan, may serve as an example of what has been said on this 
subject. "The beauty of Israel is slain upon thy high places. How 
14* 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Sect, v 

are the mighty fallen ! Tell it not in Gath ; publish it not in the 
streets of Askelon : lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice ; lest 
the daughters of the uncircumcised triumph. Ye mountains of Gil- 
boa, let there be no dew, nor rain upon you, nor fields of offerings: 
for there the shield of the mighty was vilely cast away ; the shield 
of Saul, as though he had not been anointed with oil !" The first of 
these divisions expresses sorrow and lamentation ; therefore the note 
is low. The next contains a spirited command, and should be pro- 
nounced much higher. The o f her sentence, in which he makes a 
pathetic address to the mountains where his friends were slain, must 
be expressed in a note quite different from the two former ; not so 
low as the first, nor so high as the second, in a manly, firm, and yet 
plaintive tone.* 

This correct and natural language of the emotions, is not so diffi- 
cult to be attained, as most readers seem to imagine. If we enter 
into the spirit of the author's sentiments, as well as into the meaning 
of his words, we shall not fail to deliver the words in properly varied 
tones. For there are few people, who speak English without a pro- 
vincial tone, that have not an accurate use of emphasis, pauses, and 
tones, when they utter their sentiments in earnest discourse : and 
the reason that they have not the same use of them, in reading aloud 
the sentiments of others, may be traced to the very defective and 
erroneous method, in which the art of reading is taught ; whereby 
all the various, natural, expressive tones of speech, are suppressed, 
and a few artificial, unmeaning, reading notes, are substituted for 
them. 

But when we recommend to readers an attention to the tone and 
language of emotions, we must be understood to do it with proper 
limitation. Moderation is necessary in this point, as it is in other 
things. For when reading becomes strictly imitative, it assumes a 
theatrical manner, and must be highly improper, as well as give of- 
fence to the hearers ; because it is inconsistent with that delicacy 
and modesty, which, on all occasions, are indispensable. 

CHAPTER II. 

OF VERSIFICATION. 

As there are few persons who do not sometimes read poetical 
composition, it seems necessary to give the student some idea of that 
part of grammar, which explains the principles of versification ; that, 
in reading poetry, he may be the better able to judge of its correct- 
ness, and relish its beauties. When this lively mode of exhibiting 
nature and sentiment, is perfectly chaste, it is often found to be highly 
interesting and instructive. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain num- 
ber and variety of syllables, according to certain laws 

Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of 
one verse, to the last sound or syllable of another. 

Feet and pauses are the constituent parts of verse. 
We shall consider these separately. 

* Herrics. 



Versification.] PROSODY. 163 

OF POETICAL FEET. 

A certain number of syllables connected, form a foot. They are 
called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps 
along through the verse, in a measured pace ; and it is necessary that 
the syllables which mark this regular movement of the voice should, 
in some manner, be distinguished from the others. This distinction 
was made among the ancient Romans, by dividing their syllables into 
long and short, and ascertaining their quantity by an exact proportion 
of time in sounding them ; the long being to the short, as two to one; 
and the long syllables, being thus the more important, marked the 
movement. In English, syllables are divided into accented and un- 
accented ; and the accented syllables being as slrongly distinguished 
from the unaccented, by the peculiar stress of the voice upon them, 
are equally capable of marking the movement, and pointing out the 
regular paces of the voice, as the long syllables were by their quan- 
tity, among the Romans. 

When the feet are formed by an accent on vowels, they are exactly 
of the same nature as the ancient feet, and have the same just quan- 
tity in their syllables. So that, in this respect, we have all that the 
ancients had, and something which they had not. We have in fact 
duplicates of each foot, yet with such a difference, as to n't them for 
different purposes, to be applied at our pleasure. 

Every foot has, from nature, powers peculiar to itself; and it is 
upon the knowledge and right application of these powers, that the 
pleasure and effect of numbers chiefly depend. 

All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or of three syllables ; 
and are reducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of 
three, as follows : 

DISSYLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. 

A Trochee - w A Dactyl - w w 

An Iambus w - An Amphibrach w - w 

A Spondee — An Anapaest w w - 

A Pyrrhic w w w A Tribrach www 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented : 
as, " Hateful, pettish." 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented : 
as, " Betray, consist." 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented: as, "The 
pale moon." 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented : as, " On 
the tall tree." 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unac- 
cented : as, "Labourer, possible." 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented; and 
the middle one accented : as, " Delightful, domestic." 

An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last 
accented : as, " Contravene, acquiesce." 

A Tribrach has all its syllaties unaccented: as, "Numerable, 
cdnquerable." 

Some of these feet may be denominated principal feet; as pieces 
of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of any of them. Such 
are the Iambus, Trochee, Dactyl, and Anapaest. The others may be 
termed secondary feet ; because their chief use is to diversify the 
numbers, and to improve the verse. 

We shall first explain the nature of the principal feet, 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Versification 

IAMBIC verses may be divided into several species, according to 
the number of feet or syllables of which they are composed. 

1 The shortest form of the English Iambic consists of an Iambus, 
with an additional short syllable : as, 

Disdaining, 

Complaining, 

Consenting, 

Repenting. 
We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met with in 
stanzas. The Iambus, with this addition, coincides with the Am- 
phibrach. 

2 The second form of our Iambic is also too short to be continued 
through any great number of lines. It consists of two Iambuses, 

What place Is here ! 
What scenes appear I 
To me the rose 
No longer glows. 
It sometimes takes, or may take, an additional short syllable; as, 
upon a mountain 
Beside a fountain. 

3 The third form consists of three Iambuses. 

In places far or near, 
Or famous or obscure, 
Where wholesome is the air, 
Or where the most impure. 
It sometimes admits of an additional short syllable : as, 
Our hearts n6 longer languish. 

4 The fourth form is made up oi'four Iambuses. 

And may at last mf w T earjf age, 
Find out the peaceful hermitage. 

5 The fifth species of English Iambic, consists of Jive Iambuses, 

How loved, h6w valu'd once, avails thee n6t, 

To whom related, or by whom begot : 

A heap of dust alone remains of thee ; 

Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be 

Be wise tS-day, 'tis madness to defer : 

Next day the fatal precedent will plead ; 

Thus on, till wisdom is pushed out of life. 
This is called the Heroic measure. In its simplest form it consists 
of five Iambuses ; but by the omission of other feet, as Trochees, 
Dactyls, Anapaests, &c. it is capable of many varieties. Indeed, 
most of the English common measures may be varied in the same 
way, as well as by the different position of their pauses. 

6 The sixth form of our Iambic is commonly called the Jllexan- 
drine measure. It consists of six Iambuses. 

F6r thou art but 6f dust; be humble and be wise. 
The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic rhyme ; and 
when used sparingly, and with judgment, occasions an agreeable 
variety. 

The seas shall waste, thS skies in smoke decay, 
Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away ; 
But fix'd his word, his saving pow'r remains : 
Thy realm for ever lasts, thy own Messiah reigns. 

7 The seventh and last form of our Iambic measure, is nWe ip 
of seven Iambuses. 



Verification.] PROSODY. 165 

The Lord descended from above, 
And bowed the heavens high. 
This was anciently written in one line ; but it is now broken into 
two ; the first containing ibur feet, and the second three : 
When all th^v mercies, O mj God ! 

My rising soul surveys, 
Transported with the view, I'm lost 
In wonder, love, and praise. 
In all these measures, the accents are to be placed on even sylla- 
bles ; and every line considered by itself, is, in general, more melo- 
dious, as this rule is more strictly observed. 

TROCHAIC verse is of several kinds. 

1 The shortest Trochaic verse in our language, consists of one 
Trochee and a long syllable. 

Tumult cease, 

Sink to peace. 
This measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be used on seri- 
ous occasions. 

2 The second English form of the Trochaic consists of two feet; 
and is likewise so brief, that it is rarely used for any very serious 
purpose. 

On the mountain 

By a fountain. 
It sometimes contains tw r o feet or trochees, with an additional long 
syllable : as, 

In the days Qf old 

Fables plainly told. 

3 The third species consists of three trochees: as, 

When 6ur hearts are mourning : 
or of three trochees, with an additional long syllable : as, 
Restless mortals toil for nought ; 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought ; 
Bliss, a native of the sky, 
Never wanders. Mortals, try ; 
There you cannot seek in vain ; 
For to seek her is to gain. 

4 The fourth Trochaic species consists of four trochees: as, 

Round us roars the tempest louder. 
This form may take ah additional long syllable, as follows : 

Idle" after dinner in his chair, 

Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 
But this measure is very uncommon. 

5 The fifth Trochaic species is likewise uncommon. It is com- 
posed of Jive trochees. 

All that walk Qn foot 6v ride Tn chariSts, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 

6 The sixth form of the English Trochaic consists of sir trochees : 
as, 

On a mountain, stretch'd beneath a ho^irf willSw, 
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. 
This seems to be the longest Trochaic line that our language 
admits. 

In all these Trochaic measures, the accent is to be placed on the 
odd syllables. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Versification 

The DACTYLIC measure being very uncommon, we shall give 
only one example of one species of it : 

From the low pleasures Qf this fallen natttre, 

Rise we to higher, &c. 
ANAPiESTIC verses are divided into several species. 

1 The shortest anapaestic verse must be a single anapaest : as, 

Btit in vain, 
They complain. 
This measure is, however, ambiguous ; for, by laying the stress of 
the voice on the first and third syllables, we might make a trochaic. 
And therefore the first and simplest form of our genuine Anapaestic 
verse, is made up of two Anapaests : as, 

But his courage 'gan fail, 
For no arts could avail, 
This form admits of an additional short syllable 
Then his courage 'gan fail him, 
For no arts could avail him. 

2 The second species consists of three Anapaests. 

ye woods, spread ySur branches apace ; 
To your deepest recesses I fly; 

1 would hide with the beasts of the chace ; 
I would vanish from every eye. 

This is a very pleasing measure, and much used, both in solemn 
and cheerful subjects. 

3 The third kind of the English Anapaestic, consists of four Ana- 
paests. 

May I govern my passions with absoMtite sway ; 
And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 
This measure will admit of a short syllable at the end : as, 

On the warm cheek 6f youth, smiles and roses are blending. 
The preceding are the different kinds of the principal feet, in their 
more simple forms. They are capable of numerous variations, by 
the intermixture of those feet with each other; and by the admission 
of the secondary feet. 

We have observed, that,J} n g ns h verse is composed of feet formed 
by accent; and that wnen fr&e accent falls on vowels, the feet are 
equivalent to those formed fey quantity. That the student may 
clearly perceive this difffence, we shall produce a specimen of each 
kind. I . 

O'er heaps Sf mTns stalk'd the stately hind. 
Here we see the accent is upon the vowel in each second syllable 
In the following line, we shall find the same Iambic movement, but 
formed by accent on consonants, except the last syllable. 
Then rustling, crackling, crashing thunder down. 
Here the time of the short accented syllables, is compensated by a 
short pause, at the end of each word to which they belong. 

We now proceed to show the manner in which poetry is varied 
and improved, by the admission of secondary i'eet into its composition. 
Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night. 
The first foot here is a Dactyl; the rest are Iambics. 

O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Aip. 
This line contains three Amphibrachs mixed with Iambics. 

Innumerable before th' Almighty's throne. 
Here, in the second foot, we find a Tribrach. 



Vvm/fication.] PROSODY. 167 

See the bold youth strain up the thre*at'ning steep. 

lii this line, the first foot is a Trochee ; the second a genuine Spon- 
dee by quantity , the third a Spondee by accent. 

In the following line, the first foot is a Pyrrhic, the second a 
Spondee. 

That Sn weak wings from far pursues your flight. 

From the preceding view of English versification, we maj r see 
what a copious stock of materials it possesses. For we are not only 
allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet, in our heroic measure, 
but we have, as before observed, duplicates of each, agreeing in 
movement, though differing in measure,* and which make different 
impressions on the ear ; an opulence peculiar to our language, and 
which may be the source of a boundless varietj r . 

Of Poetical Pauses. 

There are two sorts of pauses, one for sense, and one for melody, 
perfectly distinct from each other. The former may be called sen- 
tential, the latter harmonic pauses. 

The sentential pauses are those which are known to us by the 
name of stops, and which have names given them; as the comma, 
semicolon, colon, and period. 

The harmonic pauses may be subdivided into the final pause, and 
the C(2sural pause. These sometimes coincide with the sentential 
pause, sometimes have an independent state, that is, exist where 
there is no stop in the sense. 

The final pause takes place at the end of the line, closes the 
verse, and marks the measure : the caesural divides it into equal or 
unequal parts. 

The final pause preserves the melody, without interfering with the 
sense. For the pause itself perfectly marks the bound of the metre ; 
and being made only by a suspension of the voice, not by any change 
of note, it can never affect the sense. This is not the only advantage 
gained to numbers, by this final pause or stop of suspension. It also 
prevents that monotony, that sameness of note at the end of lines, 
which, however pleasing to a rude, is disgusting to a delicate ear. 
For as this final pause has no peculiar note of its own, but always 
takes that which belongs to the preceding word, it changes continu- 
ally with the matter, and is as various as the sense. 

It is the final jjause which alone, on many occasions, marks the 
difference between prose and verse ; which will be evident from the 
following arrangement of a few poetical lines. 

"Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that forbidden tree, 
whose mortal taste brought death into the world, and all our wo, 
with loss of Eden, till one greater man restore us, and regain the 
blissful seat, sing heavenly muse!" 

A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was 
verse ; but would take it for poetical prose. By properly adjusting 
the final pause, w T e shall restore the passage to its true state of verse 
Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our wo, 

* Movement and measure are thus distinguished. Movement expresses the 
progressive order of sounds, whether from strong to weak, from long to short, 
or vice versa. Measure signifies the proportion of time, both in sounds and 
1*8998. 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Versification. 

With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, heavenly music ? 
The examples show the necessity of reading blank verse, in such 
a manner, as to make every line sensible to the ear; for, what is the 
use of melody, or for what end has the poet composed in verse, if, in 
reading his lines, we suppress his numbers, by omitting the final 
pause ; and degrade them, by our pronunciation, into mere prose ? 

The Caesura is commonly on the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable of 
heroic verse. 
On the fourth syllable, or at the end of the second foot: as, 
The silver eel" in shining volumes roll'd, 
The yellow carp" in scales bedropp'd with gold. 
On the fifth syllable, or in the middle of the third foot : as, 
Round broken columns" clasping ivy twin'd, 
O'er heaps of ruin" stalled the stately hind. 
On the sixth syllable, or at the end of the third foot: as, 
Oh say what stranger cause" yet unexpior'd, 
Could make a gentle belle" reject a lord. 
A line may be divided into three portions, by two caesuras: as, 
Outstretch'd he lay" on the cold ground" and oft" 
Look'd up to heav'n 
There is another mode of dividing lines, well suited to the nature 
of the couplet, by introducing semi-pauses, which divide the line into 
four pauses. This semi-pause may be called a demi-ccesura 
The following lines admit of, and exemplify it. 

Glows 7 while he reads" but trembles 7 as he writes. 
Reason 7 the card 77 but passion 7 is the gale. 
Rides 7 in the whirlwind 77 and directs 7 the storm. 

Of Melody, Harmony, and Expression. 

Having shown the general nature of feet and pauses, the constituents 
parts of verse, we shall now point out, more particularly, their use 
and importance. 

Melody, harmony, and expression, are the three great objects of 
poetic numbers. By melody, is meant a pleasing effect produced 
on the ear, from an apt arrangement of the constituent parts of verse, 
according to the laws of measure and movement. By harmony, an 
effect produced by an action of the mind, in comparing the different 
members of a verse with each other, and perceiving a due and beau- 
tiful proportion between them. By expression, such a choice and 
arrangement of the constituent parts of verse, as serve to enforce and 
illustrate the thought or the sentiment. 

We shall consider each of these three objects in versification, both 
with respect to the feet and the pauses. 

1st. With regard to melody. 

From the examples which we have given of verses composed in 
all the principal feet, it is evident that a considerable portion of 
melody is found in each of them, though in different degrees. Verses 
made up of pure Iambics have an excellent melody. 

That the final and csesural pauses contribute to melody, cannot be 
doubted by any person who reviews the instances which we have 
already given of those pauses. To form lines of the first melody, the 
c&ssura must be at the end of the second, or of the third foot, or in 
the middle of the third. 

2d, With respect to harmony. 



Versification.] PROSODY. IC9 

Verses composed of Iambics have indeed a fine harmony ; but as 
the stress of the voice, in repeating such verses, is always in the same 
places, that is, on every second syllable, such a uniformity would 
disgust the ear in a long succession ; and therefore such changes w r ere 
sought for, as might introduce the pleasure of variety, without preju- 
dice to melody ; or which might even contribute to its improvement. 
Of this nature was the introduction of the Trochee, to form the first 
foot of an heroic verse : as, 

Favours t6 none, to all she smiles extends, 

O'ft she rejects, but never once offends. 
Each of these lines begins with a Trochee ; the remaining feet are 
in the Iambic movement. In the following line of the same move- 
ment, the fourth foot is a Trochee. 

AH these our notidns vain, sees and dorides. 
The next change admitted for the sake of variety, without preju- 
dice to melody, is the intermixture of Pyrrhics and Spondees ; in 
which, two impressions in the one foot make up for the want of one 
in the other ; and two long syllables compensate two short ones, so 
as to make the sum of the quantity of the two feet, equal to two 
Iambics. 

On the green bank t5 look into the - clear 

Smooth lake that t6 me seem'd another sky. 

Stood rul'd stood vast, infinitude confin'd. 
The next variety admitted is that of the Amphibrach. 

Which many a bard had chaunted many a day. 
In this line, we find that two of the feet are Amphibrachs ; and 
three, Iambics. 

We have before shown that the caesura improves the melody of 
verse ; and we shall now speak of its other more important office, 
that of being the chief source of harmony in numbers. 

The first and lowest perceptior of harmony, by means of the 
caesura, arises from comparing two members of the same line with 
each other, divided in the manner to be seen in the instances before 
mentioned ; because the beauty of proportion in the members, ac- 
cording to each of these divisions, is founded in nature ; being as one 
to two — two to three — or three to two. 

The next degree arises from comparing the members of a couplet, 
or two contiguous lines : as, 

See the bold youth" strain up the threat'ning steep, 

Rush thro' the thickets" down the valleys sweep. 
Here we find the caesura of the first line, at the end of the second 
foot* and in middle of the third foot, in the last line. 

Hang o'er their coursers' heads" with eager steed, 

And earth rolls back" beneath the flying speed. 
In this couplet, the Caesura is at the end of the third foot, in the 
first line ; and of the second, in the latter line. 

The next perception of harmony arises from comparing a greater 
number of lines, and observing the relative proportion of the couplets 
to each other, in point of similarity and diversity, as: 

Thy forests Windsor" and thy green retreats, 

At once the monarch's" and the muse's seats, 

Invite my lays." Be present Sylvan maids, 

Unlock your springs" and open all your shades. 

Not half so swift" the trembling doves can fly, 

When the fierce eagle" cleaves the liquid sky ; 

Not half so swiftly" the fierce eagle moves, 

When through the r)o ids" he drives the tr^mblin^ doret. 

15 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In this way, the comparison of lines variously apportioned by the 
different seats of the three caesuras, may be the source of a great 
variety of harmony, consistent with the finest melody. This is still 
increased by the introduction of two caesuras, and much more by 
that of semi-pauses. The semi-pauses double every where the terms 
of comparison ; give a more distinct view of the whole and the parts 
afford new proportions of measurement, and an ampler scope for 
diversity and equality, those sources of beauty in harmony. 

Warms' in the sun" refreshes' in the breeze, 

Glows' in the stars" and blossoms' in the trees ; 

Lives' through all life" extends' through all extent, 

Spreads' undivided" operates' unspent. 
3d, The last object in versification regards expression. 
When men express their sentiments by words, they naturally fall 
into that sort of movement of the voice, which is consonant to that 
produced by the emotion in the mind; and the Dactylic or Anapaes- 
tic, the Trochaic, Iambic, or Spondaic, prevails even in common 
discourse, according to the different nature of the sentiments ex- 
pressed. To imitate nature, therefore, the poet, in arranging his 
words in the artificial composition of verse, must take care to make 
the movement correspond "to the sentiment, by the proper use of the 
several kinds of feet : and this is the first and most general source of 
expression in numbers. 

That a judicious management of the feet and pauses, may be pecu- 
liarly expressive of particular operations and sentiments, will suffi- 
ciently appear to the learner, by a few select examples under each 
of those heads. 

In the following instance, the vast dimensions of Satan are shown 
by an uncommon succession of long syllables, which detain us to 
survey the huge arch fiend, in his fixed posture. 

So stretch'd out huge in length the arch fiend lay. 
The next example affords instances of the power of a Trochee be- 
ginning a line, when succeeded by an Iambus. 

. anc j sheer within 

Lights 6n his feet : as when a prowling wolf 

Leaps o'er the fCnce with ease mt6 the fold. 
The Trochee which begins the line shows Satan in the act of 
lighting : the Iambus that follows, fixes him — " Lights dn his feet." 
The same artifice, in the beginning of the next line, makes us see 
the wolf—" leap o'er the fSnce." — But as the mere act of leaping 
over the fence, is not the only circumstance to be attended to, but 
also the facility with which it is done, this is strongly marked, not 
only by the smooth foot which follows — "with ease" — itself very 
expressive, but likewise by a Pyrrhic preceding the last foot — "into 
the fold" — which indeed carries the wolf—" with ease intd the feld." 
The following instances show the effects produced by caesuras, so 
placed as to divide the line into very unequal portions : such as that 
after the first, and before the last semipede. 

thus with the year 

Seasons return, but not to me returns. 

Day" or the sweet approach of even or morn. 
Here the caesura after the first semipede Day, stops us unexpect- 
edly, and forcibly impresses the imagination with the greatness of the 
author's loss of sight. 

No sooner had th 5 Almighty ceas'd, but all 

The multitude of angels, with a shout 



Comma.] PUNCTUATION. 171 

Loud" as from numbers without number" sweet 

As from blest voices uttering joy. 

There is something very striking in this uncommon caesura, which 
suddenly stops the reader, to reflect on the importance of a particu- 
lar word. . ■ . 

We shall close the subject, with an example containing the united 
powers of many of the principles w 7 huh have been explained. 
Dire was the tossing" deep the groans" Despair" 
Tended the sick" busiest from couch to couch' 
And over them triumphant death" his dart" 
Shook" but delSy 'd to strike, 
Many of the rules and observations respecting Prosody, are taken 
from rt Sheridan's Art of Reading ;" to which book the Compiler 
refers the ingenious student, for more extensive information on the 
subject • 



PUNCTUATION.* 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written com- 
position into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points 
or stops, for the purpose of marking the different 
pauses which the sense, and an accurate pronunciation 
require. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Se- 
micolon, a pause double tkat of the comma 5 the Colon, 
double that of the semicolon; and the Period, double 
that of the colon. 

The precise quantity or duration of each pause, cannot be defined; 
for it varies with the time of the whole. The same composition may 
be rehearsed in a quicker or a. slower time ; but the proportion be- 
tween the pauses should be ever invariable. 

In order more clearly to determine the proper application of the 
points, we must distinguish between an imperfect phrase a simple 
sentence, and a compound sentence. 

An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to 
a proposition or sentence : as, " Therefore ; in haste ; studious of 
praise." 

A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite verb, ex- 
pressed or implied : as, " Temperance preserves health." 

A compound sentence has more than one subject, or one finite 
verb, either expressed or understood ; or it consists of two or more 
simple sentences connected together: as, "Good nature mends and 
beautifies all objects ;" " Virtue refines the affections, but vice de- 
bases them." 

In a sentence, the subject and the verb, or either of them, may be 

* As punctuation is attended to aid both the sense, and the pronunciation of 
a sentence, it could not have been exclusively discussed under the part of Syn- 
tax, or of Prosody. The nature of the subject, its extent and importance, and 
the grammatical knowledge which it presupposes, have induced us to make it 
a distinct and subsequent article. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Comma. 

accompanied with several adjuncts: as, the object, the end, the cir- 
cumstance of time, place, manner, and the like: and the subject or 
verb may be either immediately connected with them, or mediately: 
that is, by being connected with something which is connected with 
some other, and so on as, " The mind, unoccupied with useful 
knowledge, becomes a magazine of trifles and follies." 

Members of sentences may be divided into simple and compound 
members. See page 97. 

CHAPTER I. Of the Comma. 
The Comma usually separates those parts of a sen- 
tence, which, though very closely connected in sense 
and construction, require a pause between them. 

Rule I. With respect to a simple sentence, the several words of 
which it consists have so near a relation to each other, that, in gene- 
ral, no points are requisite, except a full stop at the end of it : as, 
" The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." " Every part 
of matter swarms with living creatures." 

A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the nomi- 
native case is accompanied with considerable adjuncts, may admit 
of a pause immediately before the verb : as, " The good taste of the 
present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the 
English language." " To be totally indilferent to praise or censure, 
is a real defect in character." 

Rule II. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple 
sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually 
introduced before the beginning, and at the end of this phrase : as, 
"I remember with gratitude, his goodness to me :" "His work is, 
in many respects, very imperfect. It is, therefore, not much approved." 
But when those interruptions are slight and unimportant, the comma 
is better omitted : as, " Flattery is certainly pernicious;" "There is 
surely a pleasure in beneficence." 

In the generality of compound sentences, there is frequent occa- 
sion for commas. This will appear from the following rules ; some 
of which apply to simple, as well as to compound sentences. 

Rule III. When two or more nouns occur in the same construc- 



is alternately supported by his father, his uncle, and his elder brother J 
From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard to two 
nouns closely connected by a conjunction : as, "Virtue and- vice form 
a strong contrast to each other :" "Libertines call religion bigotry or 
superstition;" "There is a natural difference between merit and 
demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly." But if the parts con- 
nected are not short, a comma may be inserted, though the conjunc- 
tion is expressed : as, " Romances may be said to be miserable rhap- 
sodies, or dangerous incentives to evil ;" " Intemperance destroys the 
strength of our bodies, and the vigour of our minds." 

Rule IV. Two or more substantives belonging to the same sub- 
stantive are likewise separated by commas : as, " Plain, honest truth, 
*As a considerable pause in pronunciation, is necessary between the las* 
noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it. But as no pause 
ig allowable between the last adjective and the noun, under Rule IV, the com 
ma is there properly omitted. See WALKER'S Elements of Elocution. 



Comma.] PUNCTUATION. 173 

want9 no artificial covering ;" " David was a brave, wise, and pious 
man;" " A woman, gentle, sensible, well-educated, and religious;" 
" The most innocent pleasures are the sweetest, the most rational, the 
most affecting, and the most lasting." 

But two adjectives, immediately connected by a conjunction, are 
not separated by a comma : as, " True worth is modest and retired ;" 
*' Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform and consis- 
tent." "We must be wise or foolish ; there is no medium." 

Rule V. Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and 
immediately following one another, are also separated by commas : 
as, "Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity;" "In a 
letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss." 

Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an excep- 
tion to the above rule: as,, "The study of natural history expands 
and elevates the mind ;" " Whether we eat or drink; labour or sleep, 
we should be moderate." 

Two or more participles, are subject to a similar rule, and excep- 
tion: as, "A man, fearing, serving, and loving his Creator;" "He 
was happy in being loved, esteemed, and respected;" "By being 
admired and flattered, we are often corrupted." 

Rule VI. Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding one 
another, must be separated by commas, as, "We are fearfully, 
wonderfully framed ;" " Success generally depends on acting pru- 
dently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we undertake." 

But when two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are not 
parted by a comma : as, " Some men sin deliberately and presump- 
tiously ;" " There is no middle state ; we must live virtuously or 
vitiously." 

Rule VII. When participles are followed by something that 
depends on them, they are generally separated from the rest of the 
sentence by a comma : as, " The king, approving of the plan, put 
it in execution ;" " His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not 
fail of rendering him conspicuous;" "All mankind compose one 
family, assembled under the eye of one common Father." 

Rule VIII. When a conjunction is divided by a phrase or sentence 
from the verb to which it belongs, such intervening phrase has 
usually a comma at each extremity: as, "They set out early, and, 
before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place." 

Rule IX. Expressions in a direct address, are separated from the 
rest of the sentence by commas : as, " My son, give me thy heart ;" 
" I am obliged to you, my friends, for your many favours." 

Rule X. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood absolute, are 
separated by commas from the body of the sentence : as, "His father 
dying, he succeeded to the estate;" " At length, their ministry per- 
formed, and race well run, they left the world in peace ;" "To con- 
fess the truth, I was much in fault." 

Rule XL Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other nouns 
in the same case, by way of explication or illustration, when accom- 
panied w 7 ith adjuncts, are set off with commas : as, " Paul, the 
apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge;" 
" The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun." 

But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper, name, they are 
not divided: as, "Paul the apostle;" "The emperor Antoninus 
w 7 rotean excellent book." 

Rule XII. Simple members of sentences connected by compara- 
tives, are for the most part distinguished by a comma : as, " As the 
15* 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Comma. 

hart panteth after the water brook, so doth my soul pant after thee /' 
" Better is a dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled ox and hatred 
with it." 

If the members in comparative sentences are short, the comma is, 
in general, better omitted : as, " How much better is it to get wisdom 
than gold !" " Mankind act oftener from caprice than reason." 

Rule XIII. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or 
with some marked variety, they require to be distinguished by a 
comma : as, 

" Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 
Strong, without rage ; without overflowing, full." 
"Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only in 
union with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct of one another." 

Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees 
is single, it is better to omit the comma before it: as, "Many states 
were in alliance with, and under the protection of Rome." 

The same rule and restrictions must be applied when two or more 
nouns refer to the same preposition : as, " He was composed both 
under the threatening, and at the approach of a. cruel and lingering 
death ;" " He was not only the king, but the father of his people." 

Rule XIV. A remarkable expression, or a short observation, some- 
what in the manner of a quotation, may be properly marked with a 
comma : as, " It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know ;" " Plu- 
tarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." 

Rule XV. Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally 
admit a comma before them : as, " He preaches sublimely, who lives 
a sober, righteous, and pious life ;" " There is no charm in the female 
sex, which can supply the place of virtue." 

But when two members, or phrases, are closely connected by a 
relative, restraining the general notion of the antecedent to a particu- 
lar sense, the comma should be omitted : as, " Self-denial is the 
sacrifice which virtue must make ;" "A man who is of a detracting 
spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent words that can be put 
together." In the latter example, the assertion is not of a " man in 
general," but of " a man who is of a detracting spirit ;" and there- 
fere they should not be separated. 

The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the relative is 
not expressed but understood : as, "It was from piety, warm and 
unaffected, that his morals derived strength." "This sentiment, 
habitual and strong, influenced his whole conduct." In both of these 
examples, the relative and verb which was, are understood. 

Rule XVir\ simple member of a sentence, contained within 
another, or following another, must be distinguished by the comma - 
as, " To improve time whilst we are blessed with health, will smooth 
the bed of sickness." "Very often, while we are complaining of the 
vanity, and the evils of human life, we make that vanity, and we 
increase those evils." 

If, however, the members succeeding each other, are very closely 
connected, the comma is unnecessary : as, " Revelation tells us how 
we may attain happiness." 

When a verb in the infinitive mood, follows its governing verb, with 
several words between them, those words should generally have a 
comma at the end of them : as, " It ill becomes good and wise men, 
to oppose and degrade one another." 

Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common dependence, 
and succeeding one another* are also divided by commas : as, "To 



Semicolon.] PUNCTUATION. 175 

relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, 
teward the deserving, are humane and noble employments." 

Rule XVII. When the verb to be is followed by a verb in the infini- 
tive mood, which, by transposition, might be made the nominative 
case to it, the former is generally separated from the latter verb, by a 
comma : as, " The most obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all 
associations with bad men." " The first and most obvious remedy 
against the infection is, to withdraw from all associations with bad 
men." 

Rule XVIII. When adjuncts or circumstances are of importance, 
and often when the natural order of them is inverted, they may be 
set ofFby commas : as, " Virtue must be formed and supported, not 
by unfrequent acts, but by daily and repeated exertions." " Vices, 
like shadows, towards the evening of life, grow great and monstrous." 
" Our interests are interwoven by threads innumerable ;" " By 
threads innumerable, our interests are interwoven." 

Rule XIX. Where a verb is understood, a comma may often be 
properly introduced. This is a general rule which, besides compri- 
sing some of the preceding rules, will apply to many cases not deter- 
mined by any of them : as, " From law arises security ; from secu- 
rity, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge." In this example the 
verb " arises" is understood before "curiosity" and "knowledge ;" at 
which words a considerable pause is necessary. 

Rule XX. The words, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, for- 
merly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next 
place, in short, and all other words and phrases of the same kind, 
must generally be separated from the context by a comma : as, 
" remember thy best and first friend ; formerly, the supporter of thy 
infancy, and the guide of thy childhood ; noio, the guardian of thy 
youth, and the hope of thy coming years." " He feared want, hence, 
he overvalued riches." " This conduct may heal the difference, nay, 
it may constantly prevent any in future." "Finally, I shall only repeat 
what has been often justly said." "If the spring put forth no blos- 
soms, in summer there will be no beauty and in autumn no fruit ; so, 
if youth be trifled away without improvement, riper years may be 
contemptible, and old age miserable." 

In many of the foregoing rules and examples, great regard must be 
paid to the length of the clauses, and the proportion which they bear 
to one another. An attention to the sense of any passage, and to the 
clear, easy communication of it, will, it is presumed, with the aid of 
the preceding rules, enable the student to adjust the proper pauses, 
and the places for inserting the commas. 

CHAPTER II. Of the Semicolon. 
The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sen- 
tence into two or more parts, not so closely connected 
as those which are separated by a comma, nor yet so 
little dependent on each other, as those which are dis- 
tinguished by a colon. 

The Semicolon is sometimes used, when the preceding member of 
the sentence does not of itself give a complete sense, but depends on 
the following clause : and sometimes when the sense of that member 
would be complete without the concluding one ; as in the following 
instances : "As the desire of approbation, when it >vorks according 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Colon 

to reason, improves the amiable part of our species in every thing 
that is laudable, so nothing is more destructive to them when it is 
governed by vanity and folly." 

" Experience teaches us, that an entire retreat from worldly affairs, 
is not what religion requires ; nor does it even enjoin a long retrea* 
from them." 

" Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom." 
"Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her operations; 
that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will 
always be progressive ; and that all future generations will continue 
to make discoveries, of which we have not the least idea." 

CHAPTER III. Of the Colon. 
The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or 
more parts, less connected than those which are sepe- 
rated by a semicolon; but not so independent as sepa- 
rate distinct sentences. 

The Colon may be properly applied in the three following cases. 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but fol- 
lowed, by some supplemental remark, or further illustration of the 
subject: as, "Nature felt her inability to extricate herself from the 
consequences of guilt: the gospel reveals the plan of Divine interpo- 
sition and aid." " Nature confessed some atonement to be neces- 
sary : the gospel discovers that the necessary atonement is made." 

2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still greater 
pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding 
sentiment : as, " A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; 
an almighty governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; 
informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous ; 
and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked: these are the 
considerations which overawe the world, which support integrity, and 
check guilt.' 1 

3. The Colon is commonly used when an example, a quotation, or 
a speech is introduced: as, "The Scriptures gives us an amiable 
representation of the Deity, in these words: * God is love.' " "He 
was often heard to say : * I have done with the world, and 1 am 
willing to leave it.' " 

The propriety of using a colon, or semicolon, is sometimes deter- 
mined by a conjunction's being expressed, or nut expressed: as, 
"Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness : there 
is no such thing in the world." " Do not Hatter yourselves with the 
hope of perfect happiness ; for there is no such thing in the world." 

CHAPTER IV. Of the Period. 
When a sentence is complete and independent, and 
not connected in construction with the following sen- 
tence, it is marked with a Period. 

Some sentences are independent of each othrr, bofh in their sense 
and construction : as, " Fear God. Honour the kins?; Have charity 
towards all men." Others are independent only in their grammatical 
construction : as, " The Supreme Being changes not, either in his 
desire to promote our happiness, or in the plan of his administration. 
One light always shines upon us from above. One clear and direct 
*iatli is always pointed out to man." 



Interrogation.] PUNCTUATION. 177 

A period may sometimes be admitted between two sentences, 
though they are joined by a disjunctive or copulative conjunction. 
For the quality of the point does not always depend on the connec- 
tive particle, but on the sense and structure of sentences : as, " Re- 
creations, though they may be of an innocent kind, require steady 
government, to keep them within a due and limited province. But 
such as are of an irregular and vitious nature, are not to be governed, 
but to be banished from every well-regulated mind." 

" He who lifts himself up to the observation and notice of the 
world, is, of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. For he draws 
upon himself a thousand eyes, that will narrowly inspect him in 
every part." 

The period should be used after every abbreviated word: as, 
"M.S. P.S. N.B. A.D. O.S. N. $." &c. 

CHAPTER V. Of the Dash, Notes of Interrogation, and 
Exclamation, fyc. 

The Dash. 

The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent 
writers, may be introduced with propriety, where the sentence 
breaks off abruptly ; wdiere a significant pause is required ; orw T here 
there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment: as, "If thou art he, so 
much respected once — but, oh ! how fallen ! how degraded !" " If 
acting conformably to the will of our Creator ; — if promoting the 
welfare of mankind around us; — if securing our own happiness; — 
are objects of the highest moment: — then w T e are loudly called upon, 
to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue." 

" Here lies the great False marble, where ? 

Nothing but sordid dust lies here." 
Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourse, there are 
others, which denote a different modulation of voice, in correspon- 
dence to the sense. These are, 

The Interrogation point, ? 
The Exclamation point, ! 
The Parenthesis. () 

Interrogation. 

A note of Interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative sen- 
tence ; that is, when a question is asked : as, "Who will accompany 
me ?" " Shall we always be friends ?" 

Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, ought to 
be terminated by points of interrogation ; as, " Who adorned the 
heavens with such exquisite beauty ?" " At whose. command do the 
planets perform their constant revolutions ?" 

A point of interrogation is improper after sentences which are not 
questions, but only expressions of admiration, or of some other emo- 
tion. 

" How many instances have we of chastity and excellence in the 
fair sex!" 

"With what prudence does the son of Sirach advise us in the 
choice of our companions !" 

A note of interrogation should not be employed, in cases where it 
is on'y said a question has been asked, arid where the words are not 
used =is a question. "The Cyprians asked me, why I wept." To 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [Exclamation 

give this sentence the interrogative form, it should be expressed thiw 
" The Cyprians said to me, ' Why dost thou weep ?' " 

. Exclamation. 

The note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emo- 
tion, surprise, joy, grief, &cc. and also to invocations or addresses : as, 
"My friend! this conduct amazes me! 15 "Bless the Lord, O mv 
soul ! and forget not all his benefits !" 

" Oh ! had we both our humble state maintained, 
And safe in peace and poverty remain 'd t" 
" Hear me O Lord ! for thy loving kindness is great !" 
It is difficult, in some cases, to distinguish between an interroga- 
tive and exclamatory sentence; but a sentence, in which any wonder 
or admiration is expressed, and no answer either expected or implied, 
may be always properly terminated by a note of exclamation : as, 
" How much vanity in the pursuits of men !" " Who can sufficiently 
express the goodness of our Creator !" " What is more amiable than 
virtue !" 

The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate as to 
their quantity or time, and may be equivalent in that respect to a 
semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense may require. They 
mark an elevation of the voice. 

The utility of the points of Interrogation and Exclamation appears 
from the following examples, in which the meaning is signified and 
discriminated solely by the points. 

" What condescension !" 
" What condescension ?" 
"How 7 great was the sacrifice !" 
" How great w T as the sacrifice ?" 

Parenthesis. 

A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary information, 
or useful remark, introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, 
and which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical con- 
struction : as, 

" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 

Virtue alone is happiness below." 
" And was the ransom paid ? It was ; and paid 
(What can exalt his bounty more ?) for thee." 

"To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save four or five letters 
(for what is a name besides ?) from oblivion." " Know ye not, bre- 
thren, (for I speak to them that know the law,) how that the law 
hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth ?" 

If the incidental clause is short, or perfectly coincides with the rest 
of the sentence, it is not proper to use the parenthetical characters. 
The following instances are therefore improper uses of the paren- 
thesis. " Speak you (who saw) his wonders in the deep." "Every 
planet (as the Creator has made nothing in vain) is most probably 
inhabited." " He found them asleep again ; (for their eyes were 
heavy ;) neither knew they what to answer him." 
• The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, ana 
may be accompanied with every point which the sense would re- 
quire, if the parenthetical characters were omitted. It ought to ter- 
minate with the same kind of stop which the member has, that pre- 
cedes it ; and to contain tfiat stop within the parenthetical marks. 
We must, however, except cases of interrogation and exclamation i 



Parenthesis.] PUNCTUATION. 179 

as, " While they wish to please, (and why should they not wish it?) 
they disdain dishonorable means." " It was represented by an ana- 
logy, (Oh, how inadequate !) which was borrowed from paganism." 
Sec the Octavo Grammar, on this subject. 



There are other characters, which are frequently made use of in 
composition, and which may be explained in this place, viz. 

An Apostrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate or shorten a 
word : as, 'tis for it is ; tho' for though ; e'en for even ; judged for 
judged. Its chief use is to show the genitive case of nouns : as, "A 
man's property ; a woman's ornament." 

A Caret, marked thus a is placed where some word happens to be 
left out in writing, and which is inserted over the line. This mark 
is also called a circumflex, when placed over a particular vowel, to 
denote a long syllable : as, " Euphrates." 

A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting compounded 
words; as, "Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, 
mother-in-law." 

It is also used when a word is divided, and the former part is writ- 
ten or printed at the end of one line, and the latter part at the begin- 
ning of another. In this case, it is placed at the end of the first line, 
not at the beginning of the second. 

The Acute Accent, marked thus ' : as : " Fancy." The Grave 
thus N : as, "Favour." 

In English the Accentual marks are chiefly used in spelling-books 
and dictionaries, to mark the syllables which require a particular 
stress of the voice in pronunciation. 

The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscriminately. In 
order to distinguish the one from the other, some writers of dictiona- 
ries have placed the grave on the former, and the acute on the latter, 
in this manner : " Minor, mineral, lively, livid, rival, river." 

The proper mark to distinguish a long syllable is this": as, 
"Rosy:" and a short one this w : as, "Folly." This last mark is 
called a breve. 

A Diaeresis, thus marked **, consists of two points placed over one 
of the two vowels that would otherwise make a diphthong, and parts 
them into two syllables : as, "Creator, coadjutor, aerial." 

A Section, marked thus §, is the division of a discourse, or a chap- 
ter, into less parts or portions. 

A Paragraph IT denotes the beginning of a new subject, or a sen- 
tence not connected with the foregoing. This character is chiefly 
used in the Old, and in the New Testaments. 

A Quotation " ". Two inverted commas are generally placed at 
the beginning of a phrase or a passage, which is quoted or transcribed 
from the speaker or author in his own words ;"and two apostrophes 
in their direct position, are placed at the conclusion : as, 
" The proper study of mankind is man." 

Crotchets or Brackets [] serve to enclose a sentence, which is to 
be explained in a note, or the explanation itself, or a word or a sen- 
tence which is intended to supply some deficiency, or to rectify some 
mistake. 

An Index or hand §c?~ points out a remarkable passage, or some- 
thing that requires particular attention. 

A Brace > is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three lines* 

which have the same rhvme. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Braces are also used to connect a number of words with one com- 
mon term, and are introduced to prevent a repetition in writing or 
printing. 

An Asterisk, or little star *, directs the reader to some note in the 
margin, or at the bottom of the page. Two or three asterisks gene- 
rally denote the omission of some letters in a word, or of some bold 
or indelicate expression, or some defect in the manuscript. 

An Ellipsis — is also used, when some letters in a word, or some 
words in a verse, are omitted : as, " The k — g," for " the king." 

An Obelisk, which is marked thus f, and Parallels thus ||, together 
with the letters of the Alphabet, and figures, are used as references 
to the margin, or bottom of the page. 

Paragraphs. 

It may not be improper to insert, in this place, a few general direc- 
tions respecting the division of a composition into paragraphs. 

Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very numerous in 
small compass, should be separated into paragraphs. 

When one subject is continued to a considerable length, the larger 
divisions of it should be put into paragraphs. And it will have a 
good effect to form the breaks, when it can properly be done, at sen 
timents of the most weight, or that call for peculiar attention. 

The facts, premises, and conclusions, of a subject, sometimes natu- 
rally point out the separations into paragraphs ; and each of these, 
when of great length, will again require subdivisions at their most 
distinctive parts. 

In cases which require a connected subject to be formed into 
several paragraphs, a suitable turn of expression, exhibiting the con- 
nexion of the broken parts, will give beauty and force to the division 
See the Octavo Grammar. 

Directions respecting the use of Capital Letters. 

It was formerly the custom to begin every noun with a capital : 
but as this practice was troublesome, and gave the writing or print- 
ing a crowded and confused appearance, it has been discontinued. 
It is however, very proper to begin with a capital. 

1 The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other 
piece of writing. 

2 The first word after a period ; and, if the two sentences are totally 
independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. 

But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences, are 
thrown into one general group ; or if the construction of the latter 
sentences depends on the former, all of them, except the first, may 
begin with a small letter: as, "How long, ye simple ones, will ye 
love simplicity ? ancPthe scorners delight in their scorning ? and fools 
hate knowledge ?" "Alas ! how different ! yet how like the same !" 

3 The appellations of the Deity : as, " God, Jehovah, the Al- 
mighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, the 
Holy Spirit. 

4 Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, ships : 
as, "George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, the Seahorse." 

5 Adjectives derived from the proper names of places : as, Gre- 
cian, Roman, English, French, and Italian." 

6 The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when 
it i9 in a direct form : as, " Always remember this ancient maxim : 
' Know thyself.' " " Our sreat Lawgiver says, * Take op thy cross 



PUNCTUATION. 181 

daily, and follow me." " But when a quotation is brought in oblique* 
ly alter a comma, a capital is unnecessary : as, " Solomon observes, 
that pride goes before destruction.' " 

The first word of an example may also very properly begin with a 
capital : as, " Temptation proves our virtue." 

7 Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books: as, 
"Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language;" "Thomson'* 
Seasons ;" " Rollin's Ancient History." 

8 The first word of every line in poetry. 

9 "The pronoun 7, and the interjection O, are written in capitals: 
as, " I write :" " Hear, O earth !" 

Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when 
they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the com- 
position. 



10 



APPENDIX. 



CONTAINING RULES AND OBSERVATIONS FOR ASSISTING YOUNO 
P.ERSONS TO WRITE WITH PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY, TO 
BE STUDIED AFTER THEY HAVE ACQ.UIRED A COMPETENT 
KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PERSPICUITY 

Is the fundamental quality of style : a quality so essential in every 
kind of writing, that for the want of it nothing can atone. It is not 
to be considered as merely a sort of negative virtue, or freedom from 
defect. It has higher merit : it is a degree of positive beauty. We 
are pleased with an author, and consider him as deserving praise, 
who frees us from all fatigue of searching for his meaning ; who car- 
ries us through his subject without any embarrassment or confusion; 
whose style flows always like a limpid stream, through which we see 
to the very bottom. 

The study of perspicuity and accuracy of expression consists of 
two parts : and requires attention, first, to Single Words and Phrases, 
and then, to the Construction of Sentences. 

PART I 

Of Perspicudy and Accuracy of Expression, with respect to single 
Words and Phrases. 

These qualities of style, considered with regard to words and 
phrases, require the following properties ; purity, propriety, and 

PRECISION. 

CHAPTER I. Of Purity. 

Purity of style consists in the use of such words, and such con- 
structions, as belong to the idiom of the language which w r e speak ; 
in opposition to words and phrases that are taken from other lan- 
guages, or that are un grammatical, obsolete, new-coined, or used 
without proper authority. All such words and phrases as the follow- 
ing, should be avoided : Quoth he ; I wist not ; erewhile ; behest ; 
selfsame ; delicatesse, for delicacy ; politesse, for politeness ; hauteur, 
for haughtiness ; incumberment, connexity, martyrised, for encumber- 
ance, connexion, martyred. 

Foreign and learned words, unless where necessity requires them, 
should never be admitted into our composition. Barren languages 
may need such- assistance, but ours is not one of these. A multitude 
of Latin words, in particular, have, of late, been poured in upon our 
language. On some occasions, they give an appearance of elevation 
and dignity to style ; but they often render it stiff and apparently 
forced. In general, a plain, native style, is more intelligible to all 
readers ; and, by a proper management of words, it can be made as 
strong and expressive as this Latinised English, or any foreign idioms 



Propriety.] PERSPICUITY, he. 183 

CHAPTER II. Of Propriety. 

Propriety of language is the selection of such woras as the best 
usage has appropriated to those ideas, which we intend to express Dy 
them ; in opposition to low expressions, and to words and phrases 
which would be less significant of the ideas that we mean to convey. 
Style may be pure, that is, it may be strictly English, without Scot- 
ticisms or Gallicisms, or ungrammatical, irregular expressions of any 
kind, and may, nevertheless, be deficient in propriety : for the words 
may be ill chosen, not adapted to the subject, nor fully expressive of 
the author's sense. 

To preserve propriety, therefore, in our words and phrases, we 
must avoid low expressions ; supply words that are wanting ; be care- 
ful not to use the same word in different senses ; avoid the injudicious 
use of technical phrases, equivocal or ambiguous words, unintelligible 
expressions, and all such words and phrases as are not adapted to our 
meaning. 

1 Avoid low expressions : such as, " Topsy turvy, hurly burly, 
pellmell ; having a month's mind for a thing ; currying favour w 7 ith a 
person ; dancing attendance on the great," &,c. 

" Meantime the Britons, left to shift for themselves, were forced to 
call in the Saxons for their defence." The phrase " left to shift for 
themselves.'' is rather a low phrase, and too much in the familiar 
style to be proper in a grave treatise. 

2 Supply icords that are wanting. " Arbitrary power I look upon 
as a greater evil than anarchy itself, as much as a savage is a happier 
state of life than a slave at the oar:" it should have been, " as much 
as the state of a savage is happier than that of a slave at the oar." 
"He has not treated this subject liberally, by the views of others as 
well as his own ;" " By adverting to the views of others," would 
have been better. " This generous action greatly increased his for- 
mer services ; " it should have been, " greatly increased the merit of 
his former services." "By the pleasures of the imagination or fancy 
(which I shall use promiscuously) I hear mean," &c. This passage 
ought to have had the word "terms" supplied, which would have 
made it correct : ''terms which I shall use promiscuously." 

It may be proper in this place to observe, that articles and prepo- 
sitions are sometimes improperly omitted; as in the following in- 
stances: "How immense the difference between the pious and pro- 
fane!" "Death is the common lot of all; of good men and bad." 
They should have had the article and preposition repeated : "How 
immense the difference between the pious and the profane !" "Death 
is the common lot of all; o/good men and o/"bad." 

The repetition of articles and prepositions is proper, when we in- 
tend to point out the objects of which w T e speak, as distinguished 
from each other, or in contrast; and when we wish that the readers 
attention should rest on that distinction : as, "Our sight is at once the 
most delightful, and the most useful of all our senses." 

3 In the same sentence, be careful not to use the same word too fre- 
quently nor in different senses. " One may have an air which pro- 
ceeds from a just sufficiency and knowledge of the matter before him, 
which may naturally produce some motions of his head and body, 
which might become the bench better than the bar." 

The pronoun which is here thrice used, in such a manner as to 
throw obscurity over the sentence. 
" Gregory favoured the undertaking, for no other reason than this 



184 APPENDIX. [Propriety 

that the manager, in countenance, favoured his friend." It should 
have been, " resembled his friend." 

" Charity expands our hearts in love to God and man : it is by the 
virtue of charity that the rich are blessed, and the poor supplied." 
In this sentence, the word " charity" is improperly used in two dif- 
ferent senses ; for the highest benevolence, and for almsgiving. 

4 Jivoid the injudicious use of technical terms. To inform those 
who do not understand sea-phrases, that " We tacked to the larboard, 
and stood off to sea," would be expressing ourselves very obscurely. 
Technical phrases not being in current use, but only the peculiar 
dialect of a particular class, we should never use them but when we 
know they will be understood. 

5 Avoid equivocal or ambiguous words. The following sentences 
are exceptionable in this respect. " As for such animals as are mor- 
tal or noxious, we have a right to destroy them." " I long since 
learned to like nothing but what you do." "He aimed at nothing 
less than the crown," may denote either, "Nothing.was less aimed 
at by him than the crown," or "Nothing inferior to the crown could 
satisfy his ambition." " / will have mercy, and not sacrifice." The 
first part of this sentence denotes, "I will exercise mercy;" whereas 
it is in this place employed to signify, "I require others to exercise it." 
The translation should therefore have been accommodated to these 
different meanings. " They were both much more ancient among 
the Persians, than Zoroaster or Zerdusht." The or in this sentence 
is equivocal. It serves either as a copulative to synonymous words, 
or as a disjunctive of different tilings. If, therefore, the student 
should not know that Zoroaster and Zerdusht mean the same per- 
son, he will mistake the sense. " The rising tomb a lofty column 
bore:" "And thus the son the fervent sire addreft." Did the tomb 
bear the column, or the column the tomb ? Did the son address the 
sire, or the sire the son ? 

6 Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent words or phrases. "I have 
observed," says Steele, "that the superiority among these cof- 
feehouse politicians, proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and 
fashion." This sentence, considered in itself, evidently conveys no 
meaning. First, it is not said whose opinion, their own, or that of 
others : Secondly, it is not said what opinion, or of what sort, favour- 
able or unfavourable, true or false, but in general, "an opinion of 
gallantry and fashion," which contains no definite expression of any 
meaning. With the joint assistance of the context, reflection, and 
conjecture, we shall perhaps conclude that the author intended to 
say ; " That the rank among these politicians was determined by the 
opinion generally entertained of the rank, in point of gallantry and 
fashion, that each of them had attained." 

"This temper of mind," says an author, speaking of humility, 
"keeps our undersstanding tight about us." Whether the author 
had any meaning in this expression, or what it was, is not easy to 
determine. 

Sometimes a writer runs on in a specious verbosity, amusing his 
reader with synonymous terms and identical propositions, well- 
turned periods, and high-sounding words; but at the same time, 
using those words so indefinitely, that the reader can either affix no 
meaning at all to them, or may aifix to them almost any meaning he 
pleases. 

" If it is asked," says a late writer, " whence arises the harmony, 
or beauty of language ? what are the rules for obtaining it? the an* 



Propriety. PERSPICUITY, 6cc. 185 

swer is obvious. Whatever renders a period sweet and pleasant, 
makes it also graceful. A good ear is the gift of nature; it may be 
much improved, but not acquired by art. Whoever is possessed of 
it, will scarcely need dry critical precepts to enable him to judge of 
a true rhythmus, and melody of composition. Just numbers, accu- 
rate proportions, a musical symphony, magnificent figures, and that 
decorum which is the result of all these, are unison to the human 
mind." 

The following is a poetical example of the same nature, in which 
there is scarcely a glimpse of meaning, though it was composed by 
an eminent poet. 

From harmony, from heavenly harmony, 
This universal frame began : 
From harmony to harmony 
Thro' all the compass of the notes it ran, 
The diapason closing full in man. 

In general, it may be said, that in writings of this stamp, we must 
accept of sound instead of sense ; being assured, that if we meet with 
little that can inform the judgment, we shall at least find nothing that 
will offend I the ear. And perhaps this is one reason that, we pass 
over such smooth language, without suspecting that it contains little 
or no meaning. In order to write or speak clearly and intelligibly, 
two things are especially requisite : one, that we have clear and dis- 
tinct ideas of our subject; and the other, that our words be approved 
signs of those ideas. That persons who think confusedly, should 
express themselves obscurely, is not to be wandered at ; for embar- 
rassed, obscure, and feeble sentences, are generally, if not always, 
the result of embarrassed, obscure, and feeble thought ; but that per- 
sons of judgment, who are accustomed to scrutinize their ideas, and 
the signification of their words, should sometimes write without any 
meaning, is at first sight, matter of admiration. This, however, 
when further considered, appears to be an eifect derived from the 
same cause, indistinctness of conception, and inattention to the exact 
import of words. The occasions on which we are most apt to speak 
and write in this unintelligible manner, are the three following. 

The first is, where there is an exuberance of metaphor. Writers 
who are fond of the metaphoric style, are generally disposed to con- 
tinue it too long, and to pursue it too far. 

They are often misled by a desire of flourishing on the several pro- 
perties of a metaphor which they have ushered into the discourse, 
without taking the trouble to examine whether there are any quali- 
ties in the subject, to which these properties can, with justice and 
perspicuity, be applied. The following instance of this sort of writing 
is from an author of considerable eminence. " Men must acquire a 
very peculiar and strong habit of turning their view inward, in order 
to explore the interior regions and recesses of the mind, the hollow 
caverns of deep thought, the private seats of fancy, and the wastes 
and wildernesses, as well as the more fruitful and cultivated tracts of 
this obscure climate." A most wonderful way of telling us, that it 
is difficult to trace the operations of the mind. The author having 
determined to represent the human mind under the metaphor of a 
country, revolved in his thoughts the various objects which might be 
found in a country, without considering whether there are any things 
in the mind properly analogous to these. Hence the stranga parade 
he makes w T ith regions and recesses, hollow caverns and private seats, 
wastes and wildernesses, fruitful and cultivated tracts ; words which, 



186 APPENDIX. [Propriety. 

though they have a precise meaning, as applied to country, have no 
definite signification, as applied to mind. 

The second occasion of our being apt to write unintelligibly, is that 
wherein the terms most frequently occurring, denote things which 
are of a complicated nature, and to which the mind is not sufficiently 
familiarised. Of these the instances are numberless in every tongue , 
such as Government, church, state, constitution, power,, legislature, 
jurisdiction, &c. 

The third and principal occasion of unintelligible writing, is, when 
the terms employed are very abstract, and consequently of very ex- 
tensive signification. Thus $he word lion is more distinctly appre- 
hended by the mind than the word beast, beast than animal, animal 
than being. 

The 7th and last rule for preserving propriety in our words and 
phrases, is, to avoid all those which are not adapted to the ideas we 
mean to communicate ; or which are less significant than others, of 
those ideas, " He feels any sorrow that can arrive at man ; better 
"happen to man." "The conscience of approving one's self a bene- 
factor, is the best recompense tor being so ;" it should have been 
"consciousness." "He firmly believed the divine precept, 'There is 
not a sparrow falls to the ground,' " &c. It should have been " doc- 
trine." 

" It is but opening the eye, and the scene enters." A scene cannot 
be, said to enter : -an actor enters; but a scene appears or presents 
itself. 

" We immediately assent to the beauty of an object, without in- 
quiring into the causes of it :" t is proper to say, that we assent to 
the truth of a proposition ; but it cannot so well be said that we assent 
to the beauty of an object. Acknow edge would have expressed the 
sense with propriety. 

"The sense of feeling, can, indeed, give us a notion of extension, 
shape, and all other ideas that enter at the eye, except colours." 
Extension and shape can, with no propriety, be called ideas ; they 
are properties of matter. Neither is it accurate to speak of any sense 
giving us a notion of ideas : our senses give us the ideas themselves. 
The meaning of the sentence would have been proper, and much 
clearer, if the author had expressed himself thus : "The sense of 
feeiing can, indeed, give us the idea of extension, figure, and all the 
other properties of matter, w T hich are perceived by the eye, except 
colours." 

" The covetous man never has a sufficiency ; although he has what 
is enough for nature," is much inferior to, "The covetous man never 
has enough; although he has what is sufficient for nature." 

"A traveller observes the most striking objects he sees ; a general 
remarks all the motions of his enemy;" better thus; "A traveller 
remarks," &c; "A general observes" " This measure enlarged his 
school, and obliged him to increase the buildings ;" it should be, 
"increased his school;" and " enlarge the buildings." 

" He applied a medicine before the poison had time to work :" 
better thus : "He applied an antidote" &c. 

" The poison of a suspicious temper frequently throws out its bad 
qualities, on all who are within its, reach ;" better, " throws out its 
malignant qualities." 

" 1 will go except I should be ill ;" " I saw them all unless two or 
three •" corrected thus : " unless I should be ill ;" " except two or 
three." 



Precision] PERSPICUITY, &c. 187 

A selection of words and phrases, which are peculiarly expressive 
of the ideas we design to communicate ; or which are as particular 
and determinate in their signification, as is consistent with the nature 
and the scope of the discourse, possesses great beauty, and cannot 
fail to produce a good effect. 

CHAPTER III. Of Precision. 

Precision is the third requisite of perspicuity with respect to 
words and phrases. It signifies retrenching superfluities, and pruning 
the expression, so as to exhibit neither more nor less than an exact 
copy of the person's idea who uses it. 

The words used to express ideas may be faulty in three respects,. 
1st, They may not express the idea which the author intends, but 
some other which only resembles it : secondly, They may express 
that idea, but not fully and completely ; thirdly, They may express 
it, together with something more than is intended. Precision stands 
opposed to these three faults, but chiefly to the last. Propriety im- 
plies a freedom from the two former faults. The words which are 
used may be proper ; that is, they may express the idea intended, 
and they may express it fully; but to be precise, signifies that they 
express that idea and no more. 

The use and importance of precision may be deduced from the 
nature of the human mind. It never can view, clearly and distinctly, 
more than one object at a time. If it must look at two or three to- 
gether, especially objects that have resemblance or connexion, it 
finds itself confused and embarrassed. It cannot clearly perceive in 
what they agree, and in what they differ. Thus, were any object, 
suppose some animal, to be presented to my view of whose structure 
I wished to form a distinct notion, I should desire all his trappings to 
be taken off; I should require it to be brought before me by itself, 
and to stand alone, that there might be nothing to divide my atten- 
tion. The same is the case with words. If, when any one would 
inform me of his meaning, he also tells me more than what conveys 
it; if he joins foreign circumstances to the principal objects; if, 
by unnecessarily varying the expression, he shifts the point of view 
and makes me see sometimes the object itself, and sometimes another 
thing that is connected with it, he thereby obliges me to look on 
several objects at once, and I lose sight of the principal. He loa«.s 
the animal he is showing me, with so many trappings and collars, 
that I cannot distinctly view it ; or he brings sc many of the same 
species before me, somewhat resembling, and yet somewhat differ- 
ing, that I see none of them clearly. When an author tells me of 
his hero's courage in the day of battle, the expression is precise, and 
I understand it fully : but if, from the desire of multiplying words, he 
should praise his courage and fortitude ; at the moment he joins these 
w T ords together, my idea begins to waver. He means to express one 
quality more strongly, but he is in truth expressing two: courage 
resists danger; fortitude supports pain. The occasion of exerting 
each of these qualities is different; and being led to think of both 
together, when only one of them should be considered, my view r is 
rendered unsteady, and my conception of the object indistinct. 

All subjects do not equally require precision. It is sufficient, on 
many occasions, that we have a general view of the meaning. The 
subject, perhaps, is of the known and familar kind, and we are in no 
hazard of mistaking the sense of the author though every word which 
ne uses is wot precise and exact. 



183 APPENDIX. [Precision 

Many authors offend against this rule of precision. A considerable 
one, in describing a bad action, expresses himself thus : "It is to 
remove a good and orderly affection, and to introduce an ill or dis- 
orderly one; to commit an action that is ill, immoral, and unjust, 
to do ill, or to act in prejudice of integrity, good nature, and worth." 

A crowd of unmeaning or useless words is brought together by 
some authors, who, afraid of expressing themselves in a common 
and ordinary manner, and allured by an appearance of splendour, 
surround every thing which they mean to say with a certain copious 
loquacity. 

The great source of a loose style in opposition to precision, is the 
injudicious use of the words termed synonymous. They are called 
synonymous, because they agree in expressing one principal idea, 
but, for the most part, if not always, they express it with some diver- 
sity in the circumstances. 

The following instances show a difference in the meaning of words 
reputeTl synonymous, and point out the use of attending, with care 
and strictness, to the exact import of words. 

Custom, habit. — Custom, respects the action ; habit, the actor. By 
custom, we mean the frequent repetition of the same act; by habit, 
the effect which that repitition produces on the mind or body. By 
the custom of walking often in the streets, one acquires a habit of 
idleness. 

Pride, vanity, — Pride makes us esteem ourselves ; vanity makes us 
desire the esteem of others. It is just to say, that a man is too proud 
to be vain. 

Haughtiness, disdain. — Haughtiness is founded on the high opinion 
we entertain of ourselves ; disdain, on the low opinion we have of 
others. 

Only, alone. — Only, imports that there is no other of the same 
kind ; alone, imports being accompanied by no other. An only child, 
is one that has neither brother nor sister; a child alone, is one who is 
left by itself. There is a difference, therefore, in precise language, 
between these two phrases : " Virtue only makes us happy ;" and 
" Virtue alone makes us happy." 

V/isdom, prudenec. — Wisdom leads us to speak and act what is 
most proper. Prudence prevents our speaking or acting improperly. 

Entire, complete. — A thing is entire, by wanting none of its parts: 
complete, by wanting none of the appendages that belong to it. A 
man may have an entire house to himself, and yet not have one com- 
plete apartment. . 

Surprised, astonished, amazed, confounded.- -I am surprised with 
what is new or unexpected ; I am astonished at what is vast or great; 
I am amazed at what is incomprehensible ; I am confounded by what 
is shocking or terrible. 

Tranquillity, peace, calm. — Tranquillity, respects a situation free 
from trouble, considered in itself; peace, the same situation with 
respect to any cause that might interrupt it; calm, with regard to a 
disturbed situation going bdore or following it. A good man enjoys 
tranquillity in himself; peace, with others ; and calm, after the storm 

These are some of the numerous instances of words, in our lan- 
guage, whose significations approach, but are not precisely the same. 
The more the distinction in the meaning of such words is attended 
to, the more clearly and forcibly shall we speak or write. It may not, 
on all occasions, be necessary to pay a great deal of attention to very 



Clearness.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 189 

nice distinctions ; yet the foregoing instances show the utility of some 
general care to understand the distinct import of our words. 

While we are attending to precision, we mast be on our guard, lest, 
from the desire of pruning too closely, we retrench all copiousness. 
Scarcely in any language are there two words that convey precisely 
the same idea ; a person thoroughly conversant in the propriety of the 
language, will always be able to observe something that distinguishes 
them. As they are like diiierent-shadesof the same colour, an accu- 
rate writer can employ them to great advantage, by using them so as 
to heighten and complete the object which he presents to us. He 
supplies by one what was wanting in the other, to the strength, or to 
the finishing, of the image which he means to exhibit. But, for this 
purpose, he must be attentive to the choice of his words, and not 
employ them carelessly, merely for the sake of tilling up a period, or 
of rounding or diversifying his language, as if their signification were 
exactly the same, while in truth it is not. To unite copiousness and 
precision, to be full and easy, and at the same time correct and exact 
in the choice of every word, is no doubt one of the highest and most 
difficult attainments in writing. 

PART II. 

Of Perspicuity and Accuracy of Expression, with respect to ike 
Construction of Sentences. 

Sentences, in general, should neither be very long, nor very 
short : long ones require close attention to make us clearly perceive 
the connexion of the several parts ; and short ones are apt to break 
the sense, and weaken the connexion of thought. Yet occasionally 
they may both be used with force and propriety ; as may be seen in 
the following sentences. 

" If you look about you, and consider the lives of others as well 
as your own ; if you think how few are born with honour, and how 
many die without name or children ; how little beauty we see, and 
how few friends we hear of; how much poverty, and how many dis- 
eases there are in the world ; you will fall down upon your knees, 
and instead of repining at one affliction, will admire so many blessings 
which you have received from the Divine hand.*' This is a sentence 
composed of several members linked together, and hanging upon one 
another, so that the sense of the whole is not brought out till the 
close. The following is an example of one in which the sense is 
formed into short, independent propositions, each complete within 
its* If. " I confers it was want of consideration that made me an 
author. I wrote, because it amused me. I corrected, because it was 
as pleasant to me to correct as to write. I published, because I was 
told I might please such as it was a credit to please." 

A train of sentences, constructed in the same manner, and with the 
same number of members, should never be allowed to succeed one 
another. A long succession of either long or short sentences should 
also be avoided ; for the ear tires of either of them when too long 
continued. 

Whereas, by a proper mixture of long and short periods, and of 
periods variously constructed, not only the ear is gratified ; but ani- 
mation and force are given to our style. 

We now proceed to consider the things most essential to an accu- 
rate and a perfect sentence. They appear to be the lour following : 

1. CLEARNESS. 2. UNITY. 3. STRENGTH. 4. A JUDICIOUS US« 
OF THE FIGURES OF SPEECH. 



190 APPENDIX. [Clearness. 

CHAPTER I. Of the Clearness of a Sentence. 

Purity, propriety, and precision, in words and phrases separately 
considered, have already been explained, and shown to be necessary 
to perspicuous and accurate writing. The just relation of sentences, 
and the parts of sentences, to one another, and the due arrangement 
of the whole, are the subjects which remain to be discussed. 

The first requisite of a perfect sentence is clearness. 

Whatever leaves the mind in any sort of suspense as to the mean- 
ing, ought to be avoided. Obscurity arises from two causes ; either 
from a wrong choice of Words, or a wrong arrangement of*them. 
The choice of words and phrases, as far as regards perspicuity, has 
been already considered. The disposition of them comes now under 
consideration. 

The first thing to be studied here, is grammatical propriety. But 
as the grammar of our language is comparatively not extensive, there 
may be an obscure order of words, where there is no transgression of 
any grammatical rule. The relations of words, or members of a 
period, are, with us, ascertained only by the position in which they 
stand. 

Hence a capital rule in the arrangement of sentences is, that the 
words or members, most clearly related, should be placed in the sen- 
tence as near to each other as possible, so as to make their mutual 
relation clearly appear. It will be proper to produce some instances, 
in order to show the importance of this rule. 

1. In the position of adverbs: "The Romans understood liberty, 
at least, as well as we." These words are capable of two different 
senses, according as the emphasis, in reading them, is laid upon 
liberty, or upon at least. The words should have been thus arranged : 
" The Romans understood liberty as well, at least, as we. 55 

" Theism can only be opposed to polytheism or atheism." Is it 
meant that theism is capable of nothing else besides being opposed 
to polytheism, or atheism ? This is what the words litterally import, 
through the wrong placing of the adverb only. It should have been, 
" Theism can be opposed only to polytheism or atheism." 

" By the pleasures of the imagination, I mean only such pleasures 
as. arise originally from sight?' When it is said, " / mean only such 
pleasures ," it may be remarked, that the adverb only is not properly 
placed. It is not intended here to qualify the word mean, but such 
pleasures; and therefore should, have been placed in as close connex- 
ion as possible with the word which it limits or qualifies The style 
becomes more clear and neat, when the words are arranged thus : 
" By the pleasures of the imagination, I mean such pleasures only 
as arise from sight." 

In the following sentence, the word more is not in its proper place. 
" There is not, perhaps, any real beauty or deformity more in one 
piece of matter than another." The phrase ought to have stood thus : 
" Beauty or deformity in one piece of matter more than in another." 

2. In the position of circumstances, and cf particular members. 
An author, in his dissertation on parties, thus expresses himself: 

"Are these designs which any man, who is born a Briton, in any 
circumstances, in any situation, ought to be ashamed or afraid to 
avow?" Here we are left at a loss, whether these words, "in any 
circumstances, in any situation," axe connected with "a man born in 
Britain, in any circumstances or situation," or with that man's 
"avowing his designs in any circumstances or s.ituat /on into which 



Clearness.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 191 

he may be brought." "As it is probable that the latter was intended, 
the arrangement ought to have been conducted thus : "Are these 
designs which any man, who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed 
or afraid, in any situation, in any circumstances, to avow ?" 

The following is another instance of a wrong arrangement of 
circumstances. "A great stone that I happened to find, after a long 
search, by the sea shore, served me for an anchor." One would 
think that the search w*as confined to the sea shore; but as the mean- 
ing is, that the great stone was found by the sea shore, the period 
ought to have run thus : " A great stone, that, after a long search, I 
happened to find by the sea shore, served me for an anchor." 

It is a rule, too, never to crowd many circumstances together, but 
rather to intersperse them in different parts of the sentence, joined 
with the principal words on which they depend. For instance: 
" What I had the opportunity of mentioning to my friend, sometime 
ago, in conversation, was not a new thought." These two circum- 
stances, ''sometime ago," and "in conversation" which are here put 
together, would have had a better effect disjoined thus : "What I had 
the opportunity, sometime ago, of mentioning to my friend in con- 
versation, was not a new thought." 

Here follows an example of the wrong arrangement of a member 
of a sentence. " The minister of state who grows less by his eleva- 
tion, like a little statue placed on a mighty pedestal, will always 
have his jealousy strong about him." Here, so far as can be gathered 
from the arrangement, it is doubtful whether the object introduced, 
by way of simile, relates to what goes before, or to what follows. 
The ambiguity is removed by the following order. "The minister of 
state who, like a little statue placed on a mighty pedestal, grows less 
by his elevation, will always," &c. 

Words expressing things connected in the thought, ought to be 
placed as near together as possible, even when their separation would 
convey no ambiguity. This will be seen in the following passages 
from Addison, " For the English are naturally fkneiful, and very 
often disposed by that gloominess and melancholy of temper which 
are so frequent in our nation, to many wild notions and extravagan- 
cies, to which others are not so liable." Here the verb or asser- 
tion is, by a pretty long circumstance, separated from the subject to 
which it refers. This might have been easily prevented, by placing 
the circumstance before the verb, thus: "For the English are natu- 
rally fanciful, and by that gloominess and melancholy of temper 
which are so frequent in our nation, are often disposed to many wild 
notions," &c. 

" For as no mortal, author, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of 
things, knows to what use his works may, some time or other, be 
applied," &c. Better thus : "For as, in the ordinary fate and vicissi- 
tude if things, no mortal author knows to what use, some time or 
other, his works may be applied," &c. 

From these examples, the following observations will occur ; that a 
circumstance ought never to be placed between two capital members 
of a period ; but either between the parts of the member to which it 
belongs, or in such a manner as will confine it to its proper member. 
When the sense admits it, the sooner a circumstance is introduced, 
generally speaking, the better, that the more important and significant 
words may possess the last place, quite disencumbered. The follow 
ing sentence is, in this respect, faulty. " The emperor was so intent 
on the establishment of his absolute power in Hungary, that he 



192 APPENDIX. [Clearness. 

exposed the empire doubly to desolation and ruin for the sake of it." 
Better thus : " That, for the sake of it, he exposed the empire doubly 
to desolation and ruin." 

This appears to be a proper place to observe, that when different 
things have an obvious relation to each other, in respect to the order 
of nature or time, that order should be regarded, in assigning them 
their places in the sentence ; unless the scope of the passages require 
it to be varied. The conclusion of the following lines is inaccurate 
in this respect : "But still there will be such a mixture of delight, as 
is proportioned to the degree in which any one of these qualifications 
is most conspicuous and prevailing." The order in which the two 
last words are placed, should have been reversed, and made to stand, 
prevailing and conspicuous. — They are conspicuous, because they 
prevail. 

The following sentence is a beautiful example of strict conformity 
to this rule. " Our sight fills the mind with the largest variety of 
ideas, converses with its objects at the greatest distance, and con 
tinues the longest in action, without being tired or satiated with its 
proper emjoyments." This passage follows the order of nature. 
First, we have the variety of objects mentioned, which sight furnishes 
to the mind ; next, we have the action of sight on those objects ; and 
lastly, we have the time and continuance of its action. No order 
could be more natural or exact. 

The order which we now recommend, is, in single words especially, 
frequently violated for the sake of better sound ; but, perhaps in no 
instances, without a deviation from the line of strict propriety. 

3 In the disposition of the relative pronouns, who, which, what, 
whose, and of all those particles which express the connexion of the 
parts of speech with one another. 

A small error in the position of these words may cloud the meaning 
of the whole sentence ; and even where the meaning is intelligible, 
we always find something awkward and disjointed in the structure of 
the sentence, wrhen these relatives are out of their proper place. 
" This kind of wit," says an author, " was very much in vogue 
among our countrymen, about an age or two ago ; who did not prac- 
tise it for any oblique reason, but purely for the sake of being witty." 
We are at no loss about the meaning here ; but the construction would 
evidently be mended by disposing the circumstance, "about an age 
or two ago," in such a manner as not to separate the relative who 
from its antecedent our countrymen ; in this way : " About an age or 
two ago this kind of wit was very much in vogue among our coun- 
trymen, who did not practise it," &c. 

The following passage is still more censurable. " It is folly to pre- 
tend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up 
treasures, which nothing can protect us against, but the good provi- 
dence of our Creator." Which always refers grammatically to the 
substantive immediately preceding ; and that, in the instance just 
mentioned, is "treasures." The sentence ought to have stood thus : 
" It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves 
against the accidents of life, which nothing can protect us against," &c. 

With regard to relatives, it may be further observed that obscurity 
often arises from the too frequent repetition of them, particularly of 
the pronouns who and they, and them and theirs, when we have occa- 
sion to refer to different persons; as in the following sentence of 
Tillotson. " Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in 
others, and think that their reputation obscures them,, and their cora- 



Dnity/J PERSPICUITY, &c. 193 

mendable qualities stand in their light; and thc;efore /for/ do what 
they can to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of their 
virtues may not obscure them" This is altogether careless writing. 
When we find these personal pronouns crowding too fast upon us, we 
have often no method left, but to throw the whole sentence into some 
other form, which may avoid those frequent references to persons 
who have before been mentioned. 

To have the relation of every word and member of a sentence 
marked in the most proper and distinct manner, not only gives clear- 
ness to it, but makes the mind pass smoothly and agreeably along all 
the parts of it. — See the Appendix to the Exercises. 

CHAPTER II. Of the Unity of a Sentence. 

The second requisite of a perfect sentence is its Unity. 

In every composition there is always some connecting principle 
an oiig the parts. Some one object must reign and be predominant. 
But most of all, in a single sentence, is required the strictest unity. 
For the very nature of a sentence implies that one proposition is 
expressed. It may consist of parts, indeed, but these parts must be 
sc closely bound together, as to make the impression upon the mind 
of one object, not of many. To preserve this unity of a sentence, 
the following rules must be observed. 

In the first place, During the course of the sentence, the scene should 
be changed as Utile as possible. We should not be hurried by sudden 
transitions from person to person, nor from subject to subject. There 
is commonly, in every sentence, some person or thing which is the 
governing word. This should be continued so, if possible, from the 
beginning to the end of it. 

The following sentence varies from this rule : " After we came to 
anchor, they put me on shore, where I was welcomed by all my 
friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." In this sen 
tence, though the objects contained in it have a sufficient connexion 
with each other, yet, by this manner of representing them, by shift- 
ing so often both the place and the person, we and they, and J and 
who, they appear in so disunited a view, that the sense of connexion 
is much impaired. The sentence is restored to its proper unity, by 
turning it. after the following manner. " Having come to an anchor, 
I was put on shore, w 7 here I w r as welcomed by all my friends, and 
received with the greatest kindness." 

Here follows another instance of departure from the rule. " The 
sultan being dangerously wounded, they carried him to his tent; and, 
upon hearing of the defeat of his troops, they put him into a litter, 
which transported him to a place of safety, at the distance of about 
fifteen leagues." Better thus: "The sultan being dangerously 
wounded, was carriexl to his tent; and, on hearing of the defeat of 
his troops, was put into a litter, and transported to a place of safety 
about fifteen leagues distant." 

A second rule under the head of unity, is, Never to crowd into one 
sentence, things which have so little connexion, that they could bear to be 
divided into iv:o or three sentences. 

The violation of this rule tends so much to perplex and obscure, 
that it is safer to err by too many short sentences, than by one that 
is overloaded and embarrassed. Examples abound in authors. 
"Archbishop Tillotson," says an author, "died in this year. He 
was exceedingly beloved by king William and queen Mary, wh« 
17 



194 APPENDIX. [Unity. 

nominated Dr. Tennison, bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him." Who 
would expect the latter part of this sentence to follow in consequence 
of the former? "He was exceedingly beloved by both king arid 
queen," is the proposition of the sentence. We look for some proo* 
of this, or at least something related to it, to follow ; when we are on 
a sudden carried off to a new proposition. 

The following sentence is still worse. The author, speaking of 
the Greeks under Alexander, says : " Their march was through an 
uncultivated country, whose savage inhabitants fared hardly, having 
no other riches than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and 
unsavoury, by reason of their continual feeding upon sea-fish.'- 
Here the scene is changed upon us again and again. The march of 
the Greeks, the description of the inhabitants through whose country 
they travelled, the account of their sheep, and the cause of their sheep 
being ill tasted food, form a jumble of objects, slightly related to each 
other, which the reader cannot, without much difficulty, comprehend 
under one view. 

These examples have been taken from sentences of no great length, 
yet very crowded. Writers who deal in long sentences, are very apt 
to be faulty in this article. Take, for an instance, the following from 
Temple. "The usual acceptation takes profit and pleasure for two 
different things, and not only calls the followers or votaries of them 
by the several names of busy and idle men ; but distinguishes the 
faculties of the mind, that are conversant about them, calling the 
operations of the first, Wisdom; and of the other, Wit; which is a 
Saxon word, used to express what the Spaniards and Italians call 
Ingenio, and the French Esprit, both from the Latin, though I think 
wit more particularly signifies that of poetry, as may occur in re- 
marks on the Runic language." When the reader arrives at the end 
of this perplexed sentence, he is surprised to find himself at so great 
distance from the object with which he set out. 

Long, involved, and intricate sentences, are great blemishes in 
composition. In writers of considerable correctness, we find a pe- 
riod sometimes running out so far, and comprehending so many par- 
ticulars, as to be more properly a discourse than a sentence. An 
author, speaking of the progress of our language after the time ot 
Cromwell, runs on in this manner: "To this succeeded that licen 
tiousness which entered with the restoration, and, from infecting our 
religion and morals, fell to corrupt our language ; which last was not 
like to be much improved by those who at that time made up the 
court of king Charles the Second ; either such as had followed him 
in his banishment, or who had been altogether conversant in the dia- 
lect of these times, or young men who had been educated in the 
same country : so that the court, which used to be the standard of 
correctness and propriety of speech, was then, and I think has ever 
since continued, the worst school in England for that accomplish- 
ment ; and so will remain, till better care be taken in the education 
of our nobility, that they may set out into the world with some foun- 
dation of literature, in order to qualify them for patterns of politeness." 

The author, in place of a sentence, has here given a loose disserta- 
tion upon several subjects. How many different facts, reasonings, 
and observations, are here presented to the mind at once ! and yet so 
linked together by the author, that they all make parts of a sentence, 
which admits of no greater division in pointing than a colon, between 
any of its members. 

It may be of use here to give a specimen of a long sentence, broken 



Strength.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 195 

down into several periods ; by which we shall more clearly perceive 
the disadvantages of long sentences, and how easily they may be 
amended. Here follows the sentence in its original form : " Though 
in yesterday's paper we showed how every thing that is great, new, 
or beautiful, is apt to affect the imagination with pleasure, we must 
own, that it is impossible for us to assign the necessary cause of this 
pleasure, because we know neither the nature of an idea, nor the 
substance of a human soul : and therefore, for want of such a light, 
all that we can do, in speculations of this kind, is, to reflect on those 
operations of the soul that are most agreeable ; and to range, under 
their proper heads, what is pleasing or displeasing to the mind, with- 
out being able to trace out the several necessary and efficient causes, 
from whence the pleasure or displeasure arises. " 

The following amendment,, besides breaking down the period into 
several sentences, exhibits some other useful alterations : " In yes- 
terday's paper, we showed that every thing which is great, new, or 
beautiful, is apt to affect the imagination with pleasure. We must 
own, that it is impossible for us to assign the efficient cause of this 
pleasure, because we know not the nature either of an idea, or of 
the human soul. All that we can do, therefore, in speculations of 
this kind, is to reflect on the operations of the soul which are most 
agreeable, and to range under proper heads what is pleasing or dis- 
pleasing to the mind." 

A third rule for preserving the unity of sentences, is, to keep clear 
of all unnecessary parentheses. 

On some occasions, when the sense is not too long suspended by 
them, and when they are introduced in a proper place, they may 
add both to the vivacity and to the energy of the sentence. But for 
the most part their effect is extremely bad. They are wheels within 
wheels ; sentences in the midst of sentences ; the perplexed method 
of disposing of some thought, which a writer wants judgment to in- 
troduce in its proper place. 

The parenthesis in this sentence is striking and proper ; 
" And was the ransom paid ? It was ; and paid 
(What can exalt the bounty more?) for thee." 
But in the following sentence, we become sensible of an impropriety 
in the use of it. " If your hearts secretly reproach you for the wrong 
choice you have made, (as there is time for repentance and retreat; 
and a return to wisdom is always honourable,) bethink yourselves 
that the evil is not irreparable." It would be much better to express 
in a separate sentence, the thoughts contained in this parenthesis ; 
thus : " If your hearts secretly reproach you for the wrong choice you 
have made, bethink yourselves that the evil is not irreparable. Still 
there is time for repentance and retreat ; and a return to wisdom is 
always honourable."— See the Appendix to the Exercises. 

CHAPTER III. Of the Strength of a Sentence. 

The third requisite of a perfect sentence, is, Strength. 

By this is meant such a disposition and management of the several 
words and members, as shall bring out the sense to the best advan- 
tage, and give every word and every member, its due weight and 
force. 

A sentence may be clear, it may also be compact in all its parts, 
or have the requisite unity, and yet, by some circumstance in the 
structure, it may fail in that strength of impression, which a better 
management would have produced. 



196 * APPENDIX. [Swrs&NarH 

The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence is,, to prune 
it of all redundant viords and members. 

It is a general maxim, that any words which do not add some im- 
portance to the meaning of a sentence, always injure it. Care should 
therefore be exercised with respect to synonymous words, expletives, 
circumlocutions, tautologies, and the expressions of unnecessary cir- 
cumstances. The attention becomes remiss, when words are multi- 
plied without a correspondent multiplication of ideas. " Content 
with deserving a triumph, he refused the honour of it ;" is better lan- 
guage than to say, " Being content with deserving it," &c. 

"In the Attic commonwealth," says an author, " it was the privi- 
lege and birthright of every citizen and poet, to rail aloud and in 
public." Better simply thus : "In the Attic commonwealth, it was 
the privilege of every citizen to rail in public." 

Another expresses himself thus : "They returned back again to 
the same city from whence they came forth ;" instead of, "They re- 
turned to the city whence they came." The five words, back, again, 
same, from, and forth, are mere expletives, that have neither use nor 
beauty, and are therefore to be regarded as encumbrances. 

The word but is often improperly used with that : as, " There can 
be no doubt but that he seriously means what he says." It is not 
only useless, but cumbersome : " There can be no doubt that he 
seriously means what he says." By transposing the parts of the 
sentence, we shall immediately perceive the propriety of omitting 
this word : " That he seriously means what he says, there can be no 
doubt." 

"I am honestly, seriously, and unalterably of opinion, that nothing 
can possibly be more incurably and emphatically destructive, or more 
decisively fatal, to a kingdom, than the introduction of thoughtless 
dissipation, and the pomp of lazy luxury." Would not the full im- 
port of this noisy sentence be better expressed thus : "lam of opin- 
ion, that nothing is more ruinous to a kingdom, than luxury and dis- 
sipation." 

Some writers use much circumlocution in expressing their ideas. 
A considerable one, for so very simple a thing as a man's wounding 
himself, says, " To mangle, or wound, his outward form and consti- 
tution, his natural limbs or body." 

But, on some occasions, circumlocution has a peculiar force ; as 
n the following sentence : " Shall not the Judge of all the earth do 
right?" 
In the sentences which follow, the ill effects of tautology appear. 
" So it is, that I must be forced to get home, partly by stealth, and 
partly by for ce." 

" Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the universal love 
and esteem of all men." 

The subsequent sentence contains several unnecessary circum- 
stances. " On receiving this information, he arose, went out, saddled 
his horse, mounted him, and rode to town." All is implied in say- 
ing, " On receiving this information, he rode to town." 

This manner, however, in a certain degree, is so strongly charac- 
teristic of the simple style of remote ages, that, in books of the high- 
est antiquity, particularly the Bible, it is not at all ungraceful. Of 
this kind are the following scriptural phrases. "He lifted up his 
voice, and wept." " He opened his mouth, and said." It is true, 
tha t, in strictness, they are not necessary to the narration, but they 
arc of some importance to the composition, as bearing the venerable 






Strength. j PERSPICUITY, &c. 197 

signature of ancient simplicity. It may, on this occasion, be further 
observed, that the language of the present translation of the Bible, 
ought not to be viewed in an unexceptionable light, though sonv* 
parts of it may appear to be obsolete. From universal admission, 
this language has become so familiar and intelligible, that in all tran- 
scripts and allusions, except where the sense is evidently injured, it 
ought to be carefully preserved. And it may also be justly remarked, 
that, on religious subjects, a frequent recurrence of scripture- lan- 
guage is attended with peculiar force and propriety. 

Though it promotes the strength of a sentence, to contract a round- 
about method of expression, and to lop oif excrescences, yet we 
should avoid the extreme of pruning too closely : some leaves should 
be left to shelter and surround the fruit. Even synonymous expres- 
sions may, on some occasions, be used with propriety. One is, w r hen 
an obscurer term, which we cannot w r ell avoid employing, needs to 
be explained by one that is clearer. The other is, when the language 
of the emotions is exhibited. Emotion naturally dwells on its object, 
and when the reader also feels interested, repetition and synonymy 
have frequently an agreeable efTect. 

The following passage, taken from Addison, who delighted in a 
full and flowing style, may, by some persons, be deemed not very 
exceptionable. " But there is nothing that makes its way more di- 
rectly to the soul than beauty, which immediately diffuses a secret 
satisfaction and complacency through the imagination, and gives a 
finishing to any thing that is great or uncommon. The very first dis- 
covery of it strikes the mind with inward joy, and spreads a cheer- 
fulness and delight through all its faculties." Some degree of ver- 
bosity may be discovered in these sentences, as phrases are repeated 
which seem little more than the echo of one another ; such as — dif- 
fusing satisfaction and complacency through the imagination — striking 
the mind with inward joy — spreading cheerfulness and delight through 
all Us faculties. But, perhaps, some redundancy is more allowable 
on such lively subjects, than it would be on other occasions. 

After removing superfluities, the second rule for promoting the 
strength of a sentence, is, to attend particularly the use of copulatives, 
relatives , and all the particles employed for transition and connexion. 

These little words, but, and, or, which, whose, where, then, there- 
fore, because^ &c. are frequently the most important words of any ; 
they are the joints or hinges upon which all sentences turn ; and, of 
course, much of their strength must depend upon such particles. 
The varieties in using them are, indeed, so many, that no particular 
system of rules respecting them can be given. Some observations, 
tending to illustrate the rule, may, however, be mentioned. 

What is called splitting particles, or separating a preposition from 
the noun which it governs, is to be avoided. As if I should say, 
" Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be 
accompanied by, the advantages of fortune." Here we are put to 
a stand in thought, being obliged to rest a little on the preposition by 
itself, which, at the same time, carries no significancy till it is joined 
to its proper substantive. 

m Some writers needlessly multiply demonstrative and relative par- 
ticles, by the frequent use of such phraseology as this : " There is 
nothing which disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of language." 
In introducing a subject, or laying down a proposition, to which we 
demand particular attention, this sort of style is very proper 3 but, 
on common occasion?, it is better to express ourselves mo*e simply 



198 APPENDIX. [Strength. 

and briefly : " Nothing disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of 
language." 

Other writers make a practice of omitting the relative, where they 
think the meaning can be understood without it : as, " The man I 
love ;" " The dominions we possessed, and the conquests we made." 
But though this elliptical style is intelligible, and is allowable in con- 
versation and epistolary writing, yet in all writings of a serious and 
dignified kind, it ought to be avoided. There the relative should 
always be inserted in its proper place, and the construction filled up. 
"The man whom I love." "The dominions which we possessed 
and the conquests which we made." 

With regard to the copulative particle and, which occurs so fre- 
quently in all kinds of composition, several observations are to be 
made. First, it is evident, that the unnecessary repetition of it en- 
feebles style. The following sentence from Sir William Temple, 
will serve for an instance. He is speaking of the refinement of the 
French language : " The academy, set up by Cardinal Richelieu, to 
amuse the wits of that age and country, and divert them from raking 
into his politics and ministry, brought, this into vogue ; and the 
French wits have, for this last age, been wholly turned to the refine- 
ment of their style and language ; and, indeed, with such success, 
that it can hardly be equalled, and runs equally through their verse 
and their prose." Here are no fewer than eight ands in one sentence. 
Some writers often make their sentences drag in this manner, by a 
careless multiplication of copulatives. 

But, in the next place, it is worthy of observation, that though the 
natural use of the conjunction and, is to join objects together, yet, in 
fact, by dropping the conjunction, we often mark a closer connexion, 
a quicker succession of objects, than when it is inserted between 
them. " I came, I saw, I conquered," expresses with more force the 
rapidity and quick succession of conquest, than if connecting parti- 
cles had been used. 

On the other hand, when we seek to prevent a quick transition 
from one object to another, when we are making some enumeration, 
in which we wish that the objects should appear as distinct from 
each other as possible, and that the mind should rest, for a moment, 
on each object by itself, copulatives may be multiplied with peculiar 
advantage. As when an author says, " Such a man might fall a vic- 
tim to power; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with 
him." Observe, in the following enumeration made by the Apostle 
Paul, what additional weight and distinctness are given to each par- 
ticular, by the repetition of a conjunction : "I am persuaded that 
neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor 
things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor ai?y 
other creature, shall be able to separate us from the love of God." 

The words designed to mark the transition from one sentence to 
another, and the connexion between sentences, are sometimes very 
incorrect, and perform their office in an imperfect and obscure man- 
ner. The following is an example of this kind of inaccuracy. " By 
greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object only, but the 
largeness of a whole view. Such are the prospects of an open cham- 
paign country, a vast uncultivated desert," &c. The word such sig- 
nifies of that nature or quality, which necessarily presupposes some 
adjective or word descriptive of a quality going before, to which it 
refers. But, in the foregoing sentence, there is no such adjective. 
The author had spoken of greatness in the abstract only; and, there- 



Strength.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 199 

fore, such has no distinct antecedent to which we can refer it. The 
sentence would have been- introduced with more propriety, by say- 
ing, To this class belong, or under this head are ranged, the pros- 
pects, &c. 

As connective particles are the hinges, tacks, and pins, by which 
the words in the same clause, the clauses in the same member, the 
members in the same sentence, and even the sentences in the same 
discourse, are united together, and their relations suggested, so they 
should not be either too frequently repeated, awkwardly exposed to 
view, or made up of polysyllables, when shorter words would as well 
convey the meaning. Notwithstanding that, insomuch that, foras- 
much as, furthermore, &c. are tedious words, which tend to overload 
and perpiex a sentence. 

We shall conclude this head with two remarks on the subject of 
inserfing or omitting the conjunctions. The first is, that the illative 
conjunctions, the casual, and the disjunctive, when they suit the 
sense, can more rarely be dispensed with than the copulative. The 
second is, that the omission of copulatives always succeeds best 
when the connexion of the thoughts is either very close, or very dis 
tant. It is mostly in the intermediate cases that the conjunction is 
deemed necessary. When the connexion in thought is very distant, 
the copulative appears absurd ; and when very close, superfluous. 

The third rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, to dis- 
pose of the capital word, or words, so that they make the greatest 
impression. 

That there are, in every sentence, such capital words on which 
the meaning principally rests, every one must see ; and that these 
words should possess a conspicuous and distinguished place, is equally 
plain. For the most part, with us, the important words are placed 
in the beginning of the sentence. So in the following passages : 
" Silver and gold have I none ; but such as I have, give I unto thee," 
&c. " Your fathers, where are they ? and the prophets, do they live 
for ever ?" 

Sometimes, however, when we intend to give weight to a sentence, 
it is of advantage to suspend the meaning for a little, and then bring 
it out full at the close. " Thus," says an author, " on whatever side 
we contemplate this ancient writer, what principally strikes us, is his 
wonderful invention." _ . 

To accomplish this end, the placing of capital w 7 ords in a conspicu- 
ous part of the sentence, the natural order of our language must 
sometimes be inverted. According to this natural order, the nomi- 
native has the first place, the verb the second, and the objective, if it 
be an active verb that is employed, has the third. Circumstances 
follow the nominative, the verb, or the objective, as they happen to 
belong to any of them. "Diana of the Ephesians is great," is the 
natural order of the sentence " But its strength is increased by 
inversion, thus : " Great is Diana of the Ephesians." " I profess, in 
the sincerity of my heart," &c. is the natural order of a circumstance. 
Inverted thus: "In the sincerity of my heart, I profess, &c. 

Some authors greatly invert the natural order of sentences ; others 
write mostly in a natural style. Each method has its advantages. 
The inverted possesses strength, dignity, and variety : the other, 
more nature, ease, and simplicity. We shall give an instance of each 
method, taken from writers of considerable eminence. The first is 
of the inverted order. The author is speaking of the misery of vice. 
" This, as to the complete immoral state, is, what of their own ac- 



200 APPENDIX. [Strength. 

cord, men readily remark. Where there is this absolute degeneracy, 
this total apostacy from all candour, truth, or equity, there are few 
who do not see and acknowledge the misery which is consequent 
Seldom is the case misconstrued when at worst. The misfortune is, 
that we look not on this depravity, nor consider how it stands in less 
Jegrees. As if, to be absolutely immoral, were, indeed, the greatest 
jrisery ; but to be so in a little degree, should be no misery or harm 
1 1 all. Which, to allow, is just as reasonable as to own, that it is the 
greatest ill of a body to be in the utmost manner maimed or dis- 
torted ; but that to lose the use of only one limb, or to be impaired in 
lome single organ or member, is no ill worthy the least notice." 
Here is no violence done to the language, though there are many 
inversions. 

The following is an example of natural construction : Our sight is 
ihe most perfect, and the most delightful, of all our senses. It fills 
the mind with the largest variety of ideas, converses with its objects 
at the greatest distance, and continues the longest in action, without 
being tired, or satiated with its proper enjoyments. The sense of 
feeling can, indeed, give us a notion of extension, shape, and all other 
ideas that enter at the eye, except colours ; but, at the same time, it 
is very much straitened and confined in its operations," &c. 

But whether we use inversion or not, and in whatever part of the 
sentence we dispose of the capital words, it is always a point of con- 
sequence, that these capital words should stand clear and disentangled 
from any other words that would clog them. Thus, when there are 
any circumstances of time, place, or other limitations, which the 
principal object of our sentence requires to have connected with it, we 
must take care to dispose of them, so as not to cloud that principal 
object, nor to bury it under a load of circumstances. This will be 
made clearer by an example. " If, w 7 hilst they profess only to please, 
they secretly advise, and give instruction, they may now perhaps, as 
well as formerly, be esteemed, with justice, the best and most honour- 
able among authors." This is a well constructed sentence. It con- 
tains a great many circumstances and adverbs necessary to qualify 
the meaning; only secretly as well, perhaps, now, with justice, for- 
merly ; yet these are placed so properly, as neither to embarrass, nor 
weaken the sentence; while that which is the capital object in it, 
viz. " being justly esteemed the best and most honourable among 
authors," comes out in the conclusion clear and detached, and pos- 
sesses its proper place. See, now, what would have been the effect 
of a different arrangement : "If, whilst they profess to please only, 
they advise and give instruction secretly, they may be esteemed the 
best and most honourable among authors, with justice, perhaps, now 
as well as formerly." Here we have precisely the same words, and 
the same sense ; but by means of the circumstances being so inter- 
mingled as to clog the capital words, the whole becomes feeble and 
perplexed. 

The fourth rule for promoting the strength of sentences, is, that a 
weaker assertion or proposition should never come after a stronger one: 
and that, when our sentence consistss of two members, the longer should, 
generally, be the concluding one. 

Thus, to say, " When our passions have forsaken us, we flatter our- 
selves with the belief that we have forsaken them," is both more 
easy and more clear, than to begin with the longer part of the propo- 
sition : " We flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken 
our passions, when they have forsaken us." 



Strength. PERSPICUITY, &c. 201 

In general, it is agreeable to find a sentence rising upon us, and 
growing in its importance, to the very last word, when this construc- 
tion can be managed without affectation. " If we rise yet higher," 
says Addison, " and consider the fixed stars as so many oceans of 
flame, that are each of them attended with a different set of planets ; 
and still discover new firmaments and new lights and are sunk further 
in those unfathomable depths of either; we are lost in such a laby- 
rinth of suns and worlds, and confounded with the magnificence and 
immensity of nature." 

The fifth rule for the strength of sentences is, to avoid concluding 
them with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word. 

Agreeably to this rule, we should not conclude with any of the 
particles, of, to, from, with, by. For instance, it is a great deal better 
to say, "Avarice is a crime of which w 7 ise men are often guilty," 
than to say, " Avarice is a crime which wise men are often guilty 
of." This is a phraseology which all correct writers shun, and with 
reason. For as the mind cannot help resting a little on the import 
of the word which closes the sentence, it must be disagreeable to be 
left pausing on a word, which does not, by itself, produce any idea. 

For the same reason, verbs w 7 hich are used in a compound sense, 
with some of these prepositions, are, though not so bad, yet still not 
proper conclusions of a period : such as, bring about, lay hold of, come 
over to, clear up, and many other of this kind ; instead of wnich, if 
we can employ a simple verb, it always terminates the sentence w 7 ith 
more strength. Even the pronoun it, should, if possible, be avoided 
in the conclusion, especially when it is joined with some of the pre- 
positions ; as, with it, in it, to it. We shall be sensible of this in the 
following sentence. " There is not, in my opinion, a more pleasing 
and triumphant consideration in religion, than this, of the perpetual 
progress which the soul makes towards the perfection of its nature, 
without ever arriving at a period in it." How much more agreeable 
the sentence, if it had been so constructed as to close with the word 
period ! 

Besides particles and pronouns, any phrase, which expresses a cir- 
cumstance only, always appears badly in the rear of a sentence. We 
may judge of this by the following passage : " Let me therefore con- 
clude by repeating, that division has caused ail the mischief we 
lament; that union alone can retrieve it; and that a great advance 
towards this union, was the coalition of parties, so happily begun, so 
successfully carried on, and of late so unaccountably neglected; to 
say no worse." This last phrase, "to say no worse," occasions a 
failing off at the end. The proper disposition of such circumstances 
in a sentence, requires attention, in order to adjust them so as shall 
consist equally with the perspicuity and the strength of the period. 
Though necessary parts, they are, however, like irregular stones in 
a building, which try the skill of an artist, where to place them with 
the least offence. But it must be remembered, that the close is 
always an unsuitable place for them. Notwithstanding what has 
been said against concluding a period with an adverb, &c. this must 
not be understood to refer to such words, when the stress and signifi- 
cancy of the sentence rest chiefly upon them. In this case they are 
not to be considered as circumstances, but as the principal objects: 
as in the following sentence. " In their prosperity, my friends shall 
never hear of me, in their adversity, always." Here, " never" and 
" always" being emphatical words, were to be so placed as to make 
a strong impression. 



202 APPENDIX. [Strength. 

The sixth rule relating to the strength of a sentence, is, that in the 
members of a sentence, where two things are compared or contrasted 
with one another ; where either a resemblance or an opposition is in- 
tended to be expressed; some resemblance, in the language and con- 
struction, should be preserved. For when the things themselves corres- 
pond to each other, we naturally expect to find a similar correspon- 
dence in the words. 

Thus, when it is said, "The wise man is happy when he gains his 
own approbation ; the fool, when lie recommends himself to the ap- 
plause of those about him ;" the opposition would have been more 
regular, if it had been expressed thus: "The wise man is happy 
when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he gains that of 
others." 

"A friend exaggerates a man's virtues: an enemy inflames his 
crimes." Better thus : "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues; an 
enemy, his crimes." 

The following passage from Pope's Preface to his Homer, fully ex- 
emplifies the rule just given : " Homer was the greater genius; Vir- 
gil, the better artist : in the one we most admire the man ; in the 
other the w 7 ork. Homer hurries us with a commanding impetuosity ; 
Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty. Homer scatters with a 
generous profusion ; Virgil bestows with a careful magnificence. 
Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden overflow; 
Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a constant stream." — Periods 
thus constructed, vvhen introduced with propriety, and not returning 
too often, have a sensible beauty. But we must beware of carrying 
our attention to this beauty too far. It ought only to be occasionally 
studied, when comparison or opposition of objects naturally leads to 
it. If such a construction as this be aimed at, in all our sentences, it 
leads to a disagreeable uniformity ; produces a regularly returning 
clink in the period, which tires the ear; and plainly discovers affec- 
tation 

The seventh rule for promoting the strength and effect of sentences, 
is, to attend to the sound, the harmony and easy flow, of the words and 
members. 

Sound is a quality much inferior to sense ; yet such as must not be 
disregarded. For, as Ion? as sounds are the vehicle or conveyance 
for oui ideas there will be a very considerable connexion between 
the idea which is conveyed, and tne nature of the sound which con- 
veys it Pleasing ideas, and forcible reasoning, can hardly be trans- 
mitted to the mind, by means of harsh and disagreeable sounds 
The mind revolts at such sounds, and the impression of the sentiment 
must consequently be weakened. The observations which we have 
to make on this subject, respect the choice of words; their arrange- 
ment; the order and disposition of the members ; and the cadence or 
close of sentences. 

We begin with the choice of words. It is evident, that words are 
most agreeable to the ear, when they are composed of smooth and 
liquid sounds, in which there is a proper intermixture of vowels and 
consonants ; without too many harsh consonants rubbing against 
each other; or too many open vowels in succession, to cause a hia- 
tus, or disagreeable aperture of the mouth. 

It may always be assumed as a principle, that whatever sounds are 
difficult in pronunciation, are, in the same proportion, harsh and 
painful to the ear. Vowels give softness, consonants, strength to 
the sound of words. The melody of language requires a just propor- 



Strength.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 203 

tion of each ; and the construction will be hurt, will be rendered 
either grating or effeminate, by an excess of either. Long words are 
commonly more agreeable to the ear than monosyllables. They please 
it by the composition or succession of sounds which they present to 
it; and accordingly, the most harmonious languages abound most in 
them. Among words of any length, those are the most melodious, 
which do not run wholly either upon long or short syllables, but are 
composed of an intermixture of them : such as, repent, profess, pow- 
erful, velocity, celerity, independent, impetuosity. 

If we would speak forcibly and effectually, we must avoid the use 
of such words as the following; 1. Such as are composed of words 
already compounded, the several parts of wmich are not easily, and 
therefore not closely united : as, " Unsuccessfulness,wrongheadedne6s 9 
tenderheartedness :" 2. Such as have the syllables which immediately 
follow the accented syllable, crowded with consonants that do not 
easily coalesce: as, "Questionless, chroniclers, conventiclers :" 3. 
Such as have too many syllables following the accented syllable : as, 
"Primarily, cursorily, summarily, peremptoriness :" 4. Such as have 
a short or unaccented syllable repeated, or followed by another short 
or unaccented syllable very much resembling: as, " Holily, sillily, 
lowlily, farriery" A little harshness, by the collision of consonants, 
which nevertheless our organs find no difficulty in articulating, and 
which do not suggest to the hearer the disagreeable idea either of 
precipitation or of stammering, is by no means a sufficient reason for 
suppressing a useful term. The words hedg'd, fledged, wedg'd, drudg'd, 
grudg'd, adjudged, which some have thought very offensive, are not 
exposed to the objections which lie against the words above men- 
tioned. We should not do well to introduce such hard and strong 
sounds too frequently ; but when they are used sparingly and pro- 
perly, they have even a good effect. They contribute to that variety 
in sound which is advantageous to language. 

The next head, respecting the harmony which results from a pro- 
per arragement of words, is a point of greater nicety. For let the 
words themselves be ever so well chosen, and well sounding, yet, if 
they be ill disposed, the melody of the sentence is utterly lost, or 
greatly impaired. That this is the case, the learners will perceive 
by the following examples. " Pleasures simple and moderate always 
are the best :" it w T ould be better to say, " Simple and moderate plea- 
sures are always the best." " Office or rank may be the recompense 
of intrigue, versatility, or flattery ;" better thus, " Rank or office may 
may be the recompense of flattery, versatility, or intrigue." " A 
great recommendation of the guidance offered by integrity to us, is, 
that it is by all men easily understood :" better in this form; " It is a 
great recommendation of the guidance offered to us by integrity, that 
it is easily understood by all men." In the following examples, the 
words are neither selected nor arranged, so as to produce the most 
agreeable effect. " If we make the best of our life, it is but as a pil- 
grimage, with dangers surrounding it :" better thus, " Our life, at the 
best, is a pilgrimage, and dangers surround it." " We see that we 
encumberek with difficulties, which we cannot prevent:" better, 
" We perceive ourselves involved in difficulties that cannot be 
avoided." "It is plain to any one who views the subject, even 
slightly, that there is nothing here that is without allay and pure :" 
improved by this form; "It i3 evident to the slightest inspection, 
that nothing here is unallayed and pure." 

We may take, for an instance of a sentence remarkably harmoni- 



204 APPENDIX. [Strength 

ous, the following from Milton's Treatise on Education : " We shall 
conduct you to a hill-side, laborious indeed, at the first ascent ; but 
else so smooth, so green, so full of goodly prospects, and melodious 
sounds on every side, that the harp of Orpheus was not more charm- 
ing." Every thing in this sentence conspires to promote the har- 
mony. The words are well chosen ; full of liquids, and soft sounds ; 
laborious, smooth, green, goodly, melodious, charming; and these 
words so artfully arranged, that were we to alter the situation of any 
one of them, we should, presently, be sensible of the melody's suf- 
fering. 

To promote this harmonious arrangement of words, the following 
general directions will be found of some use. 1st, When the pre- 
ceding word ends with a vowel, let the subsequent one begin with a 
consonant ; and vice versa. A true friend, a cruel enemy, are 
smoother and easier to the voice, than a true union, a cruel destroyer. 
But when it is more perspicuous or convenient, for vowels or con- 
sonants to end one word and begin the next, it is proper that the 
vowels be a long and short one ; and that the consonants be either a 
liquid and a mute, or liquids of different .sorts : thus, a lovely offspring ; 
a purer design; a calm retreat ; are more fluent than, a happy union, 
a brief petition, a cheap triumph, a putrid distemper, a calm matron, 
a clean nurse. From these examples, the student will perceive the 
importance of accurately understanding the nature of vowels and 
consonants, liquids and mutes: with the connexion and influence 
which subsist amongst them. 2d, In general, a considerable number 
of long or short words near one another should be avoided. "Disap- 
pointment in our expectations is wretchedness :" better thus ; " Disap- 
pointed hope is misery." "No course of joy can please us long:" 
better, " No course of enjoyment can delight us long." A succession 
of words having the same quantity in the accented syllables, whether 
it be long or short, should also be avoided, " James was needy, feeble, 
and fearful:" improved thus, "James was timid, feeble, and desti- 
tute." "They could not be happy; for he was silly, pettish, and 
sullen :" better thus; "They could not be happy; for he was sim- 
ple, peevish, and gloomy." 3d, Words which begin alike, or end 
alike, must not come together; and the last syllable of the preceding 
word, should not be the same as the first syllable of the subsequent 
one. It is not so pleasing and harmonious to say, " This is a con- 
venient contrivance ;" " He is an indulgent parent ;" " She behaves 
with uniform formality ;" as, " This is a useful contrivance ;" " He 
is a kind parent ;" " She behaves with unvaried formality." 

We proceed to consider the members of a sentence, with regard to 
harmony. They should not be too long, nor disproportionate to each 
other. When they have a regular and proportional division, they are 
nuch easier to the voice, are more clearly understood, and better re- 
membered, than when this rule is not attended to: whatever tires 
the voice, and offends the ear, is apt to mar the strength of the ex- 
pression, and to degrade the sense of the author. And this is a suffi- 
cient ground for pa»ying attention to the order and proportion of sen- 
tences, and the different parts of which they consist. The following 
passage exhibits sentences in which the different members are pro- 
portionally arranged. 

Temple, speaking sarcastically of man, says; "But his pride is 
greater than his ignorance, and what he wants in knowledge he sup- 
plies by sufficiency. When he has looked about him as far as he can. 
he concludes there is no more to be seen ; when he is at the end of 



•Figures.] * PERSPICUITY, &c. i05 

his line, he is at the bottom of the ocean ; when he has shot his best, 
he is sure none ever did, or ever can, shoot better, or beyond it. 
His own reason he holds to be the certain measure of truth; and his 
own knowledge, of what is possible in nature." Here every thing is 
at once easy to the breath, grateful to the ear, and intelligible to the 
understanding. See another example of the same kind, in the 17th 
and 18th verses of the 3d chapter of the prophet Habakkuk. We 
may remark here, that our present version of the Holy Scriptures, 
especially of the Psalms, abounds with instances of an harmonious 
arrangement of the words and members of sentences. 

In the following quotation from Tillotson, we shall become sensi- 
ble of an erfect very different from that of the preceding sentences. 
"This discourse, concerning the easiness of the Divine commands, 
does all along suppose and acknowledge the difficulties of the first 
entrance upon a religious course; except only in those persons who 
have had the happiness to be trained up to religiop, by the easy and 
insensible degrees of a pious and virtuous education." Here there is 
some degree of harshness and unpleasantness, owing principally to 
this, that there is properly no more than one pause or rest in the sen- 
tence, failing betwixt the two members into which it is divided: 
each of which is so long as to occasion a considerable stretch of the 
breath in pronouncing it. 

With respect to the cadence or close of a sentence, care should be 
taken, that it be not abrupt or unpleasant. The following instances 
may be sufficient to show 7 the propriety of some attention to this 
part of the rule.- " Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good 
temper and prudence, are prosperous in general." It would be better 
thus : " Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good temper and 
prudence, have ever been found the surest road to prosperity." An 
author speaking of the Trinity, expresses himself thus : "It is a mys- 
tery which w T e firmly believe the truth of, and humbly adore the 
depth of." How 7 much better would it have been w 7 ith this transpo- 
sition : " It is a mystery, the truth of which we firmly believe, and 
the depth of which we humbly adore." 

In order to give a sentence this proper close, the longest member 
of it, and the fullest words, should be reserved to the conclusion. 
But in the distribution of the members, and in the cadence of the 
period, as weli as in the sentences themselves, variety must be 
observed ; for the mind soon tires with a frequent repetition of the 
same tone. 

Though attention to the words and members, and the close of sen- 
tences, must not be neglected, yet it must also be kept within proper 
bounds. Sense has its own harmony ; and in no instance should 
perspicuity, precision, or strength of sentiment, be sacrificed to sound. 
All unmeaning words, introduced merely to round the period, or fill 
up the melody, are great blemishes in writing. They are childish and 
trivial ornaments, by which a sentence always loses more in point 
of weight, than it can gain by such additions to its sounds. See the 
Octavo grammar, on this chapter. 

See also the Appendix to the Exercises. 

CHAPTER IV. Of Figures of Speech. 

The Fourth requisite ot a perfect sentence, is a judicious ase 
of the Figures of Speech. 
As figurative language is to be met with in almost every sentence 
18 



206 APPENDIX. [Figures 

and, vhen properly employed, confers beauty and strength on compo- 
sitioi ; some knowledge of it appears to be indispensable to the 
ichol iia, who are learning to form their sentences with perspicuity, 
accui icy, and force. We shall, therefore, enumerate the principal 
figure s, and give them some explanation. 

In general, Figures of Speech imply some departure from sim- 
plicity of expression ; the idea we mean to convey is expressed in a 
particular manner, and with some circumstance added, which is 
designed to render the impression more strong and vivid. When I 
say, for instance, "That a good man enjoys comfort in the midst of 
adversity ;" I just express my thoughts in the simplest manner pos- 
sible : but when I say, " To the upright there ariseth light in dark- 
ness ;" the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative style ; a new 
circumstance is introduced ; " light," is put in the place of " comfort," 
and "darkness" is used to suggest the idea of adversity. In the 
same manner, to say, " It is impossible, by any search we can make, 
to explore the Divine Nature fully," is to make. a simple proposition : 
but when we say, " Canst thou, by searching, find out the Lord J 
Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfection ? It is high as heaven., 
what canst thou do ? deeper than hell, what canst thou know ?" this 
introduces a figure into style ; the proposition being not only ex- 
pressed, but with it admiration and astonishment. 

But, though figures imply a deviation from what may be reckoned 
the most simple form of speech, we are not thence to conclude, that 
they imply anything uncommon, or unnatural. On many occasions, 
they are both the most natural, and the most common method of utter- 
ing our sentiments. It would be very difficult to compose any dis- 
course without using them often; nay, there are few sentences of 
considerable length, in which there does not occur some expression 
that may be termed a figure. This being the case, we may see the 
necessity of some attention, in order to understand their nature 
and use. 

At the first rise of language, men would begin with giving names 
to the different objects which they discerned, or thought of. The 
stock of words would, then, be very small. As men's ideas multi 
plied, and their acquaintance with objects increased, their store of 
names and words would also increase. But to the vast variety of 
objects and ideas, no language is adequate. No language is so copious, 
as to have a separate word for every separate idea. Men naturally 
sought to abridge this labour of multiplying words without end; 
and, in order to lay less burden on their memories, made one word, 
which they had already appropriated to a certain idea or object, 
stand also for some other idea or object, between which and the pri- 
mary one, they found, or fancied, some relation. The names of sen- 
sible objects, were the words most early introduced; and were, by 
degrees, extended to those mental objects, of which men had more 
obscure conceptions, and to which they found it more difficult to 
assign distinct names. They borrowed, therefore, the name of some 
sensible idea, where their imagination found some affinity. Thus, we 
speak of a piercing judgment, clear head ; a soft or a hard heart ; a 
rough or a smooth behaviour. We say, inflamed by anger, warmed by 
love, swelled with pride, melted into grief; and these are almost the 
only significant words which we have for such ideas. 

The principal advantages of figures of speech, are the two following: 

First, They enrich language, and render it more copious. By their 
means, words and phrases are raultiulied, for expressing all sorts of 



Figures.] PERSPICUITY, he. 207 

ideas ; for describing even the minutest differences ; the nicest shades 
and colours of thought ; which no language could pessibly do by 
proper words alone, without assistance from Tropes. 

Secondly, They frequently give us a much clearer and more strik- 
ing view of the principal object, than we could have, if it were 
expressed in simple terms, and divested of its accessory idea. By a 
well chosen figure, even conviction is assisted, and the impression of 
a truth upon the mind, made more lively and forcible than it w*ould 
otherwise be. We perceive this in the following illustration of 
Young: "When we dip too deep in pleasure, we always stir a sedi- 
ment that renders it impure and noxious :" and in this instance : "A 
heart boiling with violent passions, will aiw T ays semd up infatuating 
fumes to the head." An image that presents so much congruity be- 
tween a moral and a sensible idea, serves, like an argumen^ from 
analogy, to enforce what the author asserts, and to induce belief. 

Having considered the general nature of figures, we proceed next 
to particularize such of them as are of the most importance: viz. 
Metaphor, Allegory, Comparison, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Personi- 
fication, Apostrophe, Antithesis, Interrogation, Exclamation, Ampli- 
fication or Climax, &,c. 

A Metaphor is a figure founded entirely on the resemblance which 
one object bears to another. Hence, it is much allied to simile or 
comparison, and is indeed no other than a comparison, expressed in 
an abridged form. When I say of some great minister, "that he 
upholds the state like a pillar wmich supports the weight of a whole 
edifice," 1 fairly make a comparison: but when I say of such a 
minister, " That he is the pillar of the state," it now becomes a 
metaphor. In the latter case, the comparison between the minister 
and a pillar is made in the mind ; but it is expressed without any of 
the words that denote comparison. 

The fbilow r ing are examples of metaphor taken from Scripture: "I 
will be unto her a wail of fire round about, and will be the glorv in 
the midst of her." Thou art my rock and ray fortress." " thy 
word is a lamp to my feet, and a light to my path." 

Rules to be observed in the use of metaphors. 

1 Metaphors, as well as of her figures, should, on no occasion, be stuck 
on profusely; and should always be such as accord- with the strain of 
our sentiment. The latter part of the following passage, from a late 
historian, is, in this respect, very exceptionable. He is giving an 
account of the famous act of parliament against irregular marriages 
in England. "The bill," says he, "underwent a great number of 
alterations and amendments, which w-ere not effected without violent 
contest. At length, however, it was floated through both houses on 
the tide of a great majority, and steered into the safe harbor of royal 
approbation." 

2 Care should be taken that the resemblance, which is the founda- 
tion of the metaphor, be clear and perspicuous, not farfetched, nor 
difficult to discover. The transgression of this rule makes what are 
called harsh or forced metaphors; which are displeasing, because 
they puzzle the reader, and instead of illustrating the thought, render 
it perplexed and intricate. 

3 In the third place, we should be careful, in the conduct of meta- 
phors, never to jumble metaphorical and plain language together. An 
author addressing himself to the king, says : 

To thee the world its present homage pays ; 
The harvest early, but mature the praise. 



208 APPENDIX. [Figures 

it is plain, that, had not the rhyme misled him to the choice of an 
improper phrase, he would have said, 

The harvest early, but mature the crop ; 
and so would have continued the figure which he had begun. Where- 
as, by dropping it unfinished, and by employing the literal word 
"praise," when we were expecting something that related to the 
harvest, the figure is broken, and the two members of the sentence 
have no suitable correspondence to each other. 

4 We should avoid making two inconsistent metaphors meet on 
one object. This is what is called mixed metaphor, and is indeed 
one of the greatest misapplications of this figure. One may be 
"sheltered under the patronage of a great man:" but it would be 
wrong to say, "sheltered under the mask of dissimulation :" as a 
mask conceals, but does not shelter. Addison in his letter. from 
Italy, says : 

I bridle in my struggling muse with pain, 
That longs to launch into a bolder strain. 
The muse, figured as a horse, may be bridled ; but when we speak 
of launching, we make it a ship ; and by no force of imagination, 
can it be supposed both a horse and a ship at one moment ; bridled, 
to hinder it from launching. 

The same author, elsewhere says, " There is not a single view of 
human nature, which is not sufficient to extinguish the seeds of pride." 
Observe the incoherence of the things here joined together ; making 
a view extinguish, and extinguish seeds. 

As metaphors ought never to be mixed, so they should not be 
crowded together on the same object; for the mind has difficulty in 
passing readily through many different views of the same object, pre- 
sented in quick succession. 

The last rule concerning metaphor, is that they be not too far pur- 
sued. If the resemblance, on which the figure is founded, be long 
dwelt upon, and carried into all its minute circumstances, we tire the 
reader, who soon grows weary of this stretch of fancy; and we ren- 
der our discourse obscure. This is called straining a metaphor. 
Authors of a lively and strong imagination are apt to run into this 
exuberance of metaphor. When they hit upon a figure that pleases 
them, they are loth to part with it, and frequently continue it so long, 
as to become tedious and intricate. We may observe, for instance, 
how the following metaphor is spun out. 

Thy thoughts are vagabonds : all outward bound, 

'Midst sands, and rocks, and storms, to cruise for pleasure; 

If gain'd, dear bought ; and better miss'd than gain'd. 

Fancy and sense, from an infected shore, 

Thy cargo bring ; and pestilence the prize : 

Then such a thirst, insatiable thirst, 

By fond indulgence but inflam'd the more ; 

Fancy still cruises, when poor sense is tired. 
An Allegory, may be regarded as a metaphor continued : since It Is 
the representation of some one thing by another that resembles it, 
and which is made to stand for it. We may take from the Scriptures 
a very fine example of an allegory, in the 80th Psalm; where the 
people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine : and the 
figure is carried throughout with great exactness and beauty. "Thou 
nast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the heathen and 
planted it. Thou preparedst room before it ; and didst cause it to take 
deep root* and it filled the land The hill were covered with the 



Figures.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 209 

shadow of it : and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. 
She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river 
Why hast thou broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass 
by the way do pluck her ? The boar out of the wood doth waste it, 
and the wild beast of the field doth devour it. JReturn, we beseech 
thee, O God of Hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and visit 
this vine ?" See also Ezekiel, xvii. 22 — 24. 

The first and principal requisite in the conduct of an allegory is, 
that the figurative and the literal meaning be not mixed inconsis* 
tently together. Indeed, all the rules that were given for metaphors, 
may also be applied to allegories, on account of the affinity they bear 
to each other. The only material difference between them, besides 
the one being short and the other being prolonged, is, that a meta- 
phor always explains itself by the words that are connected with it 
in their proper and natural meaning : as, when I say, "Achilles was 
a lion ;" "An able minister is the pillar of the state;" the "lion" and 
the " pillar" are sufficiently interpreted by the mention of "Achilles" 
and the " minister," which I join to them ; but an allegory is, or may 
be, allowed to stand less connected with the litteral meaning, the 
interpretation not being so directly pointed out, but left to our own 
reflection. 

Allegory was a favorite method of delivering instruction in ancient 
times ; for w 7 hat we call fables or parables, are no other than allego- 
ries. By words and actions attributed to beasts or inanimate objects, 
the dispositions of men were figured ; and w : hat we call the moral, 
is the unfigured sense or meaning of the allegory. 

A Comparison or simile, is, when the resemblance between two 
objects is expressed in form , and generally pursued more fully than 
the nature of a metaphor admits : as when it is said, " The actions 
of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which every one 
beholds, but their springs have been seen by few." "As the moun- 
tains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his peo- 
ple." "Behold, how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell 
together in unity! It is like the precious ointment &c. and as the 
dew that descended upon the mountains of Zion." 
_ The advantage of this figure arises from the illustration which the 
simile employed gives to the prinsipal object ; from the clearer view 
which it presents ; or the more strong impression which it stamps 
upon the mind. Observe the effect of it in the following instance. 
The author is explaining the distinction between the powers of sense 
and imagination in the human mind. "As wax," says he, "would 
not be adequate to the purpose of signature, if it had not the power 
to retain as well as to receive the impression, the same holds of the 
soul with respect to sense and imagination. Sense is its receptive 
power; imagination, its retentive. Had it sense without imagination, 
it would not be as wax, but as water, where, though all impressions 
are instantly made, yet as soon as they are made, they are instantly 
lost." 

In comparisons of this nature, the understanding is concerned 
much more than the fancy : and therefore the rules to be observed, 
with respect to them, are, that they be clear, and that they be useful; 
that they tend to render our conception of the principal object more 
distinct; and that they do not lead our-view aside, and bewilder it 
with any false light. We should always remember that similes are 
not aiguments. However apt they may be, they do no more than 



210 APPENDIX. [Figures. 

explain the writer's sentiments, they do not prove them to be founded 
on truth. 

Comparisons ought not to be founded on likenesses which are toe 
faint and remote. For, these, in place of assisting, strain the mind to 
to comprehend them, and throw no light upon the subject. It is also 
to be observed, that a comparison which, in the principal circum- 
stances, carries a sufficiently near resemblance, man become unnatu- 
ral and obscure, if pushed too far. Nothing is more opposite to the 
design of this figure, than to hunt after a great number of coinci- 
dences in minute points, merely to show far the writers ingenuity can 
stretch the resemblance. 

A Metonymy is founded on the several relations, of cause and 
effect, container and contained, sign and thing signified. When we 
say ; "They read Milton," the cause is put instead of the effect; 
meaning "Milton's works." On the other hand, when it is said, 
"Gray hairs should be respected," we put the effect for the cause, 
meaning by " gray hairs," old age. " The kettle boils," is a phrase 
where the name of the container is substituted for that of the thing 
contained. " To assume the sceptre," is a common expression for 
entering on royal authority ; the sign being put for the thing signified. 
When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole ; a genus 
for a species, or a species for a genus ; in general, when any thing 
less, or anything more, is put for the precise object meant: the 
figure is then called a Synecdoche or Comprehension. It is very com- 
mon, for instance, to describe a whole object by some remarkable 
part of it : as when we say, "A fleet of twenty sail" in the place 
of " ships ;" when we use the "head" for the "person ," the "ivaves" 
for the "sea." In like manner, an attribute maybe put for a subject: 
as, "Youth" for the " young," the "deep," for the "sea;" and some- 
times a subject for its attribute. 

Personification or Prosopopoeia, is the figure by which we attribute 
life and action to inanimate objects. The use of this figure is very 
natural and extensive : there is a wonderful proneness in human 
nature, under emotion, to animate all objects. When we say, " the 
ground thirsts for rain," or, "the earth smiles with plenty;" when we 
speak of " ambition's being restless, or, " a disease's being deceitful;" 
such expressions show the facility with which the mind can accom- 
modate the properties ofliving creatures to things that are inanimate, 
or to abstract conceptions of its own forming. The following are 
striking examples from the Scriptures : " When Israel went out of 
Egypt the house of Judah from a people of strange language ; the sea 
saw it, and fled : Jordan w r as driven back ! The mountains skipped 
like rams, and the little hills like lambs. What ailed thee, O thou 
sea! that thou fleddest? Thou Joraan, that thou wast driven back? 
Ye mountains, that ye skipped like rams, and ye little hills, like 
lambs ? Tremble, thou earth, at the presence of the Lord, at the 
presence of the God of Jacob." * 

" The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them ; and 
the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose." 

Milton thus describes the immediate effects of eating the forbidden 
fruit. Terror produces the figure. 

Earth trembled from her entrails, as again 

In pangs, and nature gave a second groan ; 

Sky lowVd, and, mutt'ring thunder, some sad drops 

Wept, at completing of the mortal sin. 
The impatience of Adam to know his origin, is supposed to prompt 



Figures.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 211 

the personification of all the objects he beheld, in order to procure 
information. 

Thou sun, said I, fair light ! 
And thc'-i enlightenM earth, so fresh and gay ! 
Ye hills ami dales, ye rivers, woods, arid plains, 
And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell, 
Tell, if you saw, how came I thus, how here ? 
We shall give a remarkably fine example of this figure, from bishop 
Sherlock. He has beautifully personified Natural Religion : and wo 
may perceive, in the personification, the spirit and grace which the 
figure, when well conducted, bestows on discourse. The author is 
comparing together our Saviour and Mahomet, "Go (says he) to 
your Natural Religion : lay before her Mahomet, and his "disciples, 
arrayed in armour and blood, riding in triumph over the spoils of 
thousands who fell by his victorious sword. Show her the cities 
which he set in flames, the countries which he ravaged and destroyed, 
and the miserable distress of all the inhabitants of the earth. When 
she has viewed him in this scene, carrying her into his retirement ; 
show her the Prophet's chamber; his concubines and his wives ; and 
let her hear him aliedge revelation, and a Divine command, to justify 
his adultery and lust." 

" When she is tired with this prospect, then show her the blessed 
Jesus, humble and meek, doing good to all the sons of men. Let her 
see him in his most retired privacies ; let her follow him to the 
mount, and hear his devotions and supplications to God. Carry her 
to his table, to view his poor fare ; and hear his heavenly discourse. 
Let her attend him to the tribunal, and consider the patience with 
which he endured the scoffs and reproaches of his enemies. Lead 
her to his cross ; let her view him in the agony of death, and hear his 
last prayer for his persecutors ; ' Father, forgive them, for they know 
not w T hat they do.' — When Natural Religion has thus viewed both, 
ask her, which is the Prophet of God ? — But her answer we have 
already had, when she saw part of this scene, through the eyes of 
the Centurion, wiio attended at the cross. By him she spoke, and 
said, ' Truly this man was the Son of God.' " This is more than 
elegant; it is truly sublime. The whole passage is animated; and 
the Figure rises at the conclusion, when Natural Religion, who, be- 
fore was only a spectator, is introduced as speaking by the Centu* 
rion's voice. 

This figure of speech is sometimes very improperly and extrava« 
gantly applied. A capital error in personifying objects, is, to deck 
them with fantastic and trifling circumstances. A practice of this 
sort dissolves the potent charm, which enchants and deceives the 
reader ; and either leaves him dissatisfied, or excites, perhaps, his 
risibility. 

Another error, frequent in descriptive personifications, consists in 
introducing them, wmen the subject of discussion is destitute of dig- 
nity, and the reader is not prepared to relish them. One can scarcely 
peruse, with composure, the following use of this figure. It is the 
language of our elegant poet Thompson, who thus personifies and 
connects the bodily appetites, and their gratifications. 
Then sated Hunger bids his brother Thirst 
Produce the mighty bowl : 
Nor wanting is the browm October, drawn 
Nature and perfect, from his dark retreat 
Of thirty years ; and now his honest front 
Flames in the light refulgent. 



212 APPENDIX. [Figures 

It is to be remarked, concerning the figuie, and short metaphors 
and si rallies, which also have been allowed to be the proper language 
of high passion, that they are the proper expression of it, only on 
those occasions when it is so far moderated as to admit of words. 
The first and highest transports seem to overwhelm the mind, and 
are denoted by silence or groans : next succeeds the violent and pas- 
sionate language, of which these figures constitute a grt at part. 
Such agitation, however, cannot long continue; the passions having 
spent their force, the mind soon subsides into that exhausted and dis- 
pirited state, in which all figures are improper. 

Apostrophe is a turning off from the regular course of the subject, 
to address some person or thing; as, "Death is swallowed up in 
victory. O death ! where is thy sting? O grave ! where is thy vic- 
tory ?" 

The following is an instance of personification and apostrophe 
united : " thou sword of the Lord ! how long will it be ere thou be 
quiet ? put thyself up into thy scabbard, rest and be still ! How can 
it be quiet, seeing the Lord hath given it a charge against Askelon, 
and against the sea-shore ? there hath he appointed it." See also an 
extraordinary example of these figures, in the 14th chapter of Isaiah, 
from the 4th to the 19th verse, where the prophet describes the fall 
of the Assyrian empire. 

A principal error, in the use of the Apostrophe, is, to deck the 
object addressed with affected ornaments ; by which authors relin- 
quish the expression of passion, and substitute for it the language of 
fancy. 

Another frequent error is, to extend this figure to too great length. 
The language of violent passion is always concise, and often abrupt. 
It passes suddenly from one object to another. It often glances at a 
thought, starts from it, and leaves it unfinished. The succession of 
ideas is irregular, and connected by distant and uncommon relations. 
On all these accounts, nothing is more unnatural than long speeches, 
uttered by persons under the influence of strong passions. Yet this 
error occurs in several poets of distinguished reputation. 

The next figure in order, is Antithesis. Comparison is founded on 
the resemblance ; antithesis, on the contrast or opposition of two 
objects. Contrast has always the effect, to make each of the con- 
trasted objects appear in the stronger light. White, for instance, 
never appears so bright as when it is opposed to black; and when 
both are viewed together. An author, in his defence of a friend 
against the charge of murder, expresses himself thus: "Can you 
believe that the person whom he scrupled to slay, when he might 
have done so with full justice, in a convenient place, at a proper time, 
with secure impunity, he made no scruple to murder against justice, 
in an unfavourable place, at an unseasonable time, and at the risk of 
capital condemnation ?" 

The following examples further illustrate this figure. 
Tho' deep, yet clear; tho' gentle, yet not dull: 
Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full. 

"If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his stores, 
but to diminish his desires/' 

" If you regulate your desires according to the standard of nature, 
you will never be poor; if according to the standard of opinion, yoi 
will never be rich." 

A maxim, or moral saying, very properly receives the form of the 
two last examples ; both because it is supposed to be the fruit of 



Figures.] PERSPICUITY, &c. 213 

meditation, and because it is designed to be engraven on the memory, 
which recalls it more easily by the help of such contrasted expres- 
sions. But where such sentences frequently succeed each other* 
where this becomes an author's favourite and prevailing manner of 
expressing himself, his style appears too much studied and laboured; 
it gives us the impression of an author attending more to his manner 
of saying things, than to the things themselves. 

The following is a beautiful example of Antithesis. " If Cato may 
be censured, severely indeed, but justly, for abandoning the cause of 
libert}', which he would not, however, survive ; what shall we say 
of those, who embrace it faintly, pursue it irresolutely, grow tired of 
it when they have much to hope, and give it up when they have 
nothing to fear?" — The capital antithesis of this sentence, is insti- 
tuted between the zeal of Cato for liberty, and the indifference of 
some others of her patrons. But, besides the leading antithesis, there 
are two subordinate ones, in the latter member: " Grow tired of it, 
when they have much to hope : and give it up. when they have 
nothing to fear." 

The eloquent Burke has exhibited a fine instance of this figure, in 
his eulogium of the philanthropic Howard. 

" He has visited all Europe, — not to survey the sumptuousness of 
palaces, or the sfateliness of temples ; not to make accurate measure- 
ments of the remains of ancient grandeur, nor to form a scale of the 
curiosity of modern arts ; nor to collect medals, or collate manu- 
scripts : — but to dive into the depths of dungeons; to plunge into the 
infection of hospitals ; to survey the mansions of sorrow 7 and pain ; 
to take the gage and dimensions of misery, depression, and con- 
tempt ; to remember the forgotten, to attend to the neglected, to visit 
the forsaken, and compare and collate the distresses of all men, in all 
countries." 

The next figure concerning which we are to treat is called Hyper- 
bole or Exaggeration. It consists in magnifying an object beyond 
its natural bounds. In all languages, even in common conversation, 
hyperbolical expressions very frequently occur: as swift as the wind; 
as_ white as the snow ; and the like ; and the common forms of com- 
pliment, are almost all of them extravagant hyperboles. If any thing 
be remarkably good or great in its kind, we are instantly ready to 
add to it some exaggerating epithet, and to make it the greatest or 
best we ever saw. The imagination has always a tendency to gratify 
itself, by magnifying its present object, and carrying it to excess 
More or less of this hyperbolical turn will prevail in language, ac- 
cording to the liveliness of imagination among the people who speak 
it. Hence young people deal much in hyperboles. Hence the lan- 
guage of the Orientals w T as far more hyperbolical, than that of the 
Europeans, who are of more phlegmatic, or perhaps we may say, 
of more correct imagination. Hence, among all writers in early 
times, and in the rude periods of society, we may expect this figure 
to abound. Greater experience, and more cultivated society, abate 
the warmth of imagination, and chasten the manner of expression. 

Hyperboles are of two kinds; either such as are employed in de- 
scription, or such as are suggested by the warmth of passion. All 
passions without exception, love, terror, amazement, indignation, and 
even erief, throw the mind ii.to confusion, aggravate their objects, 
and of course prompt a hyperbolical style. Hence the following sen- 
timents of Satan in Milton, as strongly as they are described, contain 



214 APPENDIX. [Figures 

nothing but what is natural and proper; exhibiting the picture of a 
mind agitated with rase and despair. 

Me, miserable ! which way shall I fly 

Infinite wrath, and infinite despair? 

Which way I riy is Hell, myself am Hell ; 

And in the lowest depth, a lower deep, 

Stil! threat'ning to devour me, opens wide, 

To which the Hell I suffer seems a Heaven. 
The fear of an enemy augments the conceptions of the size of theii 
leader. " I saw their chief," says the scout of Ossian, " tall as a rock 
of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir ; his shield, the rising moon : he sat 
on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hill." 

The errors frequent in the use of Hyperboles, arise either from 
overstraining, or introducing them on unsuitable occasions. Dryden, 
in his poem on the restoration of king Charles the Second, compli- 
ments that monarch, at the expense of the sun himself 

That star at your birth shone out so bright, 

It stain'd the duller sun's meridian light. 
This is indeed mere bombast. It is difficult to ascertain, by any 
precise rule, the proper measure and boundary of this figure. Goo(i 
sense and just taste must determine the point, beyond which, if we 
pass, w r e become extravagant. 

Vision is another figure of speech, which is proper only in animated 
and warm composition. It is produced when, instead of relating 
something that is past, we use the present tense, and describe it as 
actually passing before our eyes. Thus Cicero, in his fourth oration 
against Cataline : " I seem to myself to behold this city, the orna- 
ment of the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved in 
one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens, 
lying unburied in the midst of their ruined country. The furious 
countenance of Cethegus rises to my view, while, with a savage joy, 
he is triumphing in your miseries." 

This manner of description supposes a sort of enthusiasm which 
carries the person who describes, in some measure out of himself; 
and, when well executed, must needs, by the force of sympathy, im- 
press the reader or hearer very strongly. But, in order to a success- 
ful execution, it requires an uncommonly warm imagination, and so 
happy a selection of circumstances, as shall make us think we see 
before our eyes the scene that is described. 

Interrogation. The unfigured, literal use of interrogation, is to ask 
a question : but when men are strongly moved, whatever they would 
affirm or deny, with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form 
of a question, expressing thereby the strongest confidence of the truth 
of their own sentiment, and appealing to their hearers for the impos- 
sibility of the contrary. Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak. 
"The Lord is not a man that he should lie, neither the son of man 
that he should repent. Hath he said it? and shall he not do it ? Hath 
he spoken it? and shall he not make it good?" 

Interrogation gives life and spirit to discourse. We see this in the 
animated, introductory speech of Cicero against Cataline: "How 
long will you, Cataline, abuse our patience ? Do you not perceive 
that your designs are discovered?" — He might indeed have said: 
if You abuse our patience a Ions while. You must be sensible, that 
your designs are discovered." But it is easy to perceive, how* much 
this latter mode of expression fails short of the force and vehemence 
of the former. 



Figures.] PERSPICUITY, Sec. 215 

Exclamations are the effect of strong emotions of the mind ; such 
as, surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like. "Wo is me that I 
sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in the tents of Kedar !" Psalms. 

" O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, 
that I might weep day and night, lor the slain of the daughter of mj 
people ! O that I had in the wilderness a lodging-place of wayfaring 
men !" Jeremiah. 

Though interrogations may be introduced into close and earnest 
reasoning, exclamations belong only to strong emotions of the mind. 
When judiciously employed, they agitate the hearer or the reader 
with similar passions : but it is extremely improper, and sometimes 
ridiculous, to use them on trivial occasions, and on mean or low sub- 
jects. The experienced writer often attempts to elevate his lan- 
guage, by the copious display of this figure : but he rarely or never 
succeeds. He frequently renders his composition frigid to excess, 
or absolutely ludicrous, by calling on us to enter into his transports, 
when nothing is said or done to demand emotion. 

Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts, 
not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our observations. 
Persons may be reproved for their negligence, by saying; "You 
have taken great care indeed." Cicero says of the persons against 
whom he was pleading ; " We have great reason to believe that the 
modest man would not ask him for his debt, when he pursues his 
life." 

Ironical exhortation is a very agreeable kind of figure; which, 
after having set the inconveniences of a thing, in the clearest light, 
concludes with a feigned encouragement to pursue it. Such is that 
of Horace, when, having beautifully described the noise and tumults 
of Rome, he adds ironically ; 

" Go now, and study tuneful verse at Rome." 

The subjects of Irony are vices and folli*^ of all kinds : and this 
mode of exposing them, is often more effectual than serious reason- 
ing. The gravest persons have not declined the use of this figure, 
on proper occasions. The wise and virtuous Socrates made great use 
of it, in his endeavours to discountenance vicious and foolish prac- 
tices. Even in the sacred writings, we have a remarkable instance 
of it. The prophet Elijah, when he challenged the priests of Baal 
to prove the truth of their deity, " mocked them, and said : Cry 
aloud for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is 
in a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked." 

Exclamations and Irony are sometimes united : as in Cicero's ora- 
tion for Balbus, where he derides his accuser, by saying; " O ex- 
cellent interpreter of the law ! master of antiquity corrector and 
amender of our constitution !" 

The last figure of speech that we shall mention, is what WTiters 
call Amplification or Climax. It consists in heightening all the cir- 
cumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in a 
strong light. Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when- he 
says ; " It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds ; it is the height 
of guilt to scourge him ; little less than parricide to put him to death* 
what name then shall I give to the act of crucifying him?" 

Archbishop Tillotson uses this figure very happily, to recommend 
goo4 and virtuous actions : "After we have practised good actions 
awhile, they become easy ; and when they are easy, we begin to take 
pleasure in them ; and when they please us, we do them frequently. 
and by frequency of acts, a thing grows into a habit ; and confirmed 



21G APPENDIX. [Figure* 

habit is a kind of second nature ; and so far as any thing is natural, 
so far it is necessary ; and we can hardly do otherwise ; nay, we do 
it many times when we do not think of it." 

We shall conclude this article with' an example of a beautiful 
climax, taken from the charge of a judge to the jury, in the case of a 
woman accused of murdering her own child. '" Gentlemen, if one 
man had any how slain another; if an adversary had killed his op- 
poser, or a woman occasioned the death of her enemy; even these 
criminals would have been capitally punished by the Cornelian law ; 
but if this guiltless infant, that could make no enemy, had been mur- 
dered by its own nurse, what punishment would not then the mother 
have demanded? With what cries and exclamations would she have 
stunned your ears ! What shall we say then, when a woman, guilty 
of homicide, a mother, of the murder of her innocent child, hath 
comprised all those misdeeds in one single crime ? a crime, in its own 
nature, detestable ; in a woman, prodigious ; in a mother, incredible ; 
and perpetrated against one whose age called for compassion, whose 
near relation claimed affection, and whose innocence deserved the 
highest favour." 

We have now finished what was proposed, concerning Perspicuity 
in single words and phrases, and the accurate construction of sen- 
tences. The former has been considered under the heads of Purity, 
Propriety, and Precision ; and the latter, under those of Clearness, 
Unity, Strength, and the proper use of Figurative Language Though 
many of those attentions which have been recommended, may appear 
minute, yet their ettect upon writing and style, is much greater than 
might, at first, be imagined. A sentiment which is expressed in accu- 
rate language, and a period, clearly, neatly, and well arranged, always 
makes a stronger impression on the mind, than one that is expressed 
inaccurately, or in a feeble or embarrassed manner. Every one feels 
this upon a comparison ; and if the effect be sensible in one sentence, 
how much more in a whole discourse, or composition that is made 
up of such sentences ? 

The fundamental rule for writing with accuracy, and into which 
all others might be resolved, undoubtedly to, communicate, in correct 
language, and in the clearest and most natural order, the ideas which 
we mean to transfuse into the minds of others. Such a selection and 
arrangement of words, as do most justice to the sense, and express it 
to the most advantage, make an agreeable and strong impression 
To these points have tended all the rules which have been given 
Did we always think clearly, and were we, at the same time, fully 
masters of the language in which we write, there would be occasion 
for few rules. Our sentences would then, of course, acquire all 
those properties of clearness, unity, strength, and accuracy, which 
have been recommended. For we may rest assured, that whenever 
we express ourselves ill, besides the mismanagement of language, 
there is, for the most part, some mistake in our manner of conceiving 
the subject. Embarrassed, obscure, and feeble sentences, are gene- 
rally, if not always, the result of embarrassed, obscure, and feeble 
thought. Thought and expression act and re-act upon each other. 
The understanding and language have a strict connexion ; and they 
who are learning to compose and arrange their sentences with accu- 
racy and order, are learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy 
and order; a consideration which alone will recompense the student, 
for his attention to this branch of literature. For a further explana* 
Hon of the Figures of Speech, see the Octavo Grammar, on this subject. 



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